
Class _i£aAi 

Book ' i ^ 



Copyright ]^°. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



EXAMPLES OF 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



BY 



FRANK MITCHELL LEAVITT 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 



One example is worth a thousand arguments. — Gladstone 



GINN AND COMPANY 

60ST0N • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 



COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY FRANK MITCHELL LEAVITT 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 






jghe gtftenaum 3^rt6S 

GINN AND COMPANY ■ PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 



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PREFACE 



It is not to be doubted that we are in the midst of a complex 
and gigantic movement, somewhat indefinite and indistinct as 
to its direction and its ultimate results, but certainly involving 
great social and industrial changes and promising universal 
betterment. The forces which are bringing about these changes 
seem to be dominated by the desire to secure for the less pros- 
perous members of society a larger measure of comfort and 
happiness and a more abundant life. 

There is probably no single agency which has had so many 
demands made upon it to help in the solution of the problems 
which this great movement is presenting as has the public 
school, and the response which it has made to the demands 
should be a matter of pride to those who believe in the great 
mission of this most important of democratic institutions. 

It must be admitted, however, that, in the securing of a fair 
opportunity for all to attain reasonable happiness ; in the neces- 
sary reduction of poverty, unemployment, and delinquency ; and 
in the promotion of individual efficiency and social solidarity, 
the schools have only a fractional part of the responsibility. To 
reach the results for which the promoters of industrial education 
are so enthusiastically working, society must cooperate in secur- 
ing the enactment and the adequate enforcement of wise child- 
labor and school-attendance laws, and the improvement of 
working conditions in general. 

Though this volume deals with only a fractional part of the 
whole problem, the author believes it to be a most important 



iv PREFACE 

part. The educators of the country wield an immense influence, 
and this influence will be increased rather than diminished when, 
by dealing successfully with a practical problem closely related 
to the lives of the people, they convince the public that they 
are not dominated alone by their interest in scholarship and dis- 
interested truth and knowledge, but by a desire to advance in 
every way possible the social and moral welfare of every child 
committed to their care. 

It is hoped that by bringing together the accounts of several 
examples of public industrial schools and classes, — the visible 
and tangible proofs that educators are applying themselves to the 
solution of the problems to which we have alluded, — this volume 
will serve to stimulate other and even more successful efforts to 
advance the movement for popular and universal education. 

The author makes no apology for drawing so liberally on the 
utterances of others, but rather takes this opportunity of acknowl- 
edging his indebtedness to the many friends who have allowed 
him to use their valuable material. Whatever may be the reader's 
attitude toward the opinions and theories expressed by the 
author, he is urged to examine this material with care and to 
attempt to interpret for himself the several examples of indus- 
trial education which it describes. 

t^RANK MITCHELL LEAVITT 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER I. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MOVEMENT FOR 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION i 

Industrial education a subdivision of vocational education. Its nature 
and the place which it occupies in the general educational plan. The 
reality of the problem. Its complexity. Lack of harmony between social 
and economic conditions and the ideals of the public schools. 

CHAPTER II. MANUAL TRAINING AND INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION 9 

The vocational idea in education. Early history of the manual-training 
movement (1876-1894). Its original coincidence with industrial edu- 
cation. Its gradual abandonment of the vocational purpose. Manual 
training and the new psychology. Establishment of its claim to a cul- 
tural value. The renewed demand for industrial education. 

CHAPTER III. THE DEMAND — AN ANALYSIS . . 19 

The demand of the manufacturers. Changed and changing industrial 
conditions. The present industrial position of the United States. The 
need of a new form of apprenticeship. Industrial training an effective 
defense against the encroachments of labor unions. 

CHAPTER IV. THE DEMAND OF ORGANIZED LABOR 26 

Lack of unity in labor's attitude. An official statement of its position. 
Its fundamental suspicion and some reasons for it. The need of indus- 
trial education from labor's standpoint. Mistakes made by organized 
labor in its opposition to industrial education. Indication of better 
things to come. Labor's interest in general as contrasted with specialized 
education. 

CHAPTER V. THE DEMAND OF EDUCATORS . . 37 

Implied criticisms of the public schools. The educator's ideal. His de- 
mand for industrial education held to be consistent with this ideal. His 
interest awakened by the elimination of pupils. The marked hostility 
on the part of some conservative educators. The educator indispensable 
in the solution of the problem. 



vi EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

PAGE 

CHAPTER VI. THE DEMAND OF SOCIAL WORKERS . 44 
Their fundamental purpose. Their study of conditions. Their dis- 
covery of the need for industrial education. Opinions of prison and re- 
form-school officials. Schools established by philanthropy. The social 
factor in industrial education. 

CHAPTER VII. THE REVISION OF EDUCATIONAL 
IDEALS INVOLVED IN THE MOVEMENT FOR IN- 
DUSTRIAL TRAINING 52 

The present movement with past history of educational advance. More 
careful adjustment to individual needs. These revealed by elimination 
of pupils from school. The importance of the elementary school. More 
flexible system needed. Earlier differentiation of purpose. Seeking 
cultural value in work. Advisory committees. New requirements for 
teachers. Necessary experimentation. Cooperation of parents, teachers, 
and employers. 

CHAPTER VIII. A PLAN FOR IMMEDIATE REORGAN- 
IZATION 63 

Reduction of retardation. Chart showing various types of vocational 
schools. Similar subdivision needed in limited industrial education 
as is found in extensive liberal and professional education. Other fea- 
tures of the plan. The possibility of early choice between various types 
of schools. A preliminary investigation. 

CHAPTER IX. EXAMPLES OF MORE FUNDAMENTAL 

REORGANIZATION 75 

Dissatisfaction with present systems of grading and promotions. Re- 
tardation. Special classes. Traditional plan of promotion. Some de- 
partures from this rigid system. Cambridge. St. Louis. The reorganized 
school system of Portland, Oregon. Menomonie, Wisconsin. Cleve- 
land's new quarterly plan. Chicago's review schools. Elementary, lower 
high, and upper high schools of Berkeley, California. The three-group 
system of Concord, New Hampshire. The Gary, Indiana, school system. 

CHAPTER X. PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 95 
The double purpose of prevocational work. Boston's early experiment. 
Effect on prolonging school life of pupils. The Cleveland Elementary 
Industrial School. The selection of pupils. The plan of organization 
and courses of study. The results. Outline of other experiments of this 
type — Indianapolis, Newark, St. Paul, Springfield (Illinois), Evanston, 
Fitchburg, Los Angeles, and Seattle. Summary of characteristics of 
prevocational work. 



CONTENTS vii 

PAGE 

CHAPTER XI. THE INTERMEDIATE OR SEPARATE 
INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL . 129 

Its position defined. The Rochester Shop School: its history and organ- 
ization ; cabinetmaking department ; electrical department ; plumbing 
department ; carpentry department ; cost of the school and receipts 
from the "product system." Newton Independent Industrial School; 
organization, course of study, and product ; certificates and diplomas. 
The Manhattan Trade School. The Secondary Industrial School of 
Columbus, Georgia. Other schools of this type. 

CHAPTER XII. VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS . . 154 
Place and variety of vocational high schools. The Albert G. Lane Tech- 
nical High School, Chicago : under conservative conditions has achieved 
success as a progressive and " vocational " school ; its physical equip- 
ment ; the two-year course in electricity, with notes ; efficiency test of 
pattern-making class. Value of real work. 

CHAPTER XIII. THE TRADE SCHOOL . . . .175 
The trade school a finishing school. Its singleness of purpose. Mil- 
waukee's public trade schools : courses for pattern makers, machinists 
and toolmakers, plumbers, dressmakers, and milliners. Trade-training 
problems different for the boy and the girl. David Ranken, Jr., School of 
Mechanical Trades : an endowed school ; purpose as shown in founda- 
tion deed ; courses in carpentry, pattern making, bricklaying, plumbing, 
painting, and steam engineering. Worcester Trade School : emphasis 
placed on a commercial product ; the possibility of securing it for 
pupils in carpentry, pattern making, cabinetmaking, and machine work. 

CHAPTER XIV. PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 201 
First organized in the United States at the University of Cincinnati. 
The plan applied to high schools and to a separate industrial school. 
Fitchburg plan and course of study for machine-shop industries. The 
Beverly Industrial School : agreement between city of Beverly and the 
United Shoe Machinery Company ; the machinist instructors and the 
high-school staff. Summary of important features of the part-time plan. 

CHAPTER XV. THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL . . 223 
Continuation schools dependent on the cooperation of employers and 
the school authorities : a strong leading spirit essential to their success. 
Cincinnati's experience : the night school ; the young apprentice needs 
daytime instruction ; day continuation school for machine-shop appren- 
tices ; the course of study, enrollment, and cost ; compulsory attendance 
under sixteen years of age. Cleveland's continuation schools. Boston's 
day continuation classes in dry goods, salesmanship, shoe and leather, 
banking, and household arts. 



viii EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

PAGE 

CHAPTER XVI. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE . . .235 
Initial steps taken at Boston. The Boston plan described by former 
Superintendent Brooks : vocational placement distinguished from voca- 
tional guidance ; the revision of educational methods ; earlier choice of 
vocation becomes desirable ; conflict between specialized and cultural 
motives ; industrial education a supplement to, not a substitute for, 
general education ; the Vocation Bureau and the school committee ; 
other agencies ; vocational counselors and vocational assistants ; guid- 
ance within the school system ; placement and subsequent encourage- 
ment ; the school's duty. The Grand Rapids plan : study of conditions ; 
guidance in the high school ; record charts ; school counselors ; liter- 
ature and vocational guidance ; the plan in detail and the cooperation 
of the Grand Rapids Public Library. New York City and Cincinnati. 

CHAPTER XVIL STATE LEGISLATION . . . .267 
Theoretically an expression of public opinion. Examination of laws 
relating directly to industrial education in public schools. Connecticut. 
Indiana. Kansas. Maine. Summary of Massachusetts legislation prior 
to 191 1 : revised laws ; definitions, state administration and supervision, 
types of schools, local administration and control. Michigan. New 
Jersey. New York: extract from Education Law, 1910; what schools 
may be established ; advisory boards ; authority of local boards of educa- 
tion and of the state commissioner of education. Ohio. Oklahoma. 
Oregon. Pennsylvania. Wisconsin : the most complete state law re- 
lating to education, school attendance, child labor, and apprenticeship. 
Combined agriculture, manual training, and home economics in states 
where agriculture, rather than manufacture, is the most important interest : 
Minnesota ; North Dakota ; Vermont. 

CHAPTER XVIII. CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDU- 
CATION 299 

Education for the Iowa Farm Boy, a paper by IL C. Wallace. The new 
conditions confronting the farmer; The resultant interest in agriculture 
shown by the whole people. The necessity for systematic and scientific 
training. The German educational system and the German teachers. 
The French system. The English system. The American system : its 
gradual evolution ; tardy recognition of the educational needs of the 
farmer ; the wall around the agricultural college. Agricultural teaching 
in foreign countries. Secondary agricultural education in the United 
States ; the conditions in Iowa. Need of training in reach of the aver- 
age boy on the farm. Some suggestions. 

INDEX ........... 327 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION 



CHAPTER I 

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MOVEMENT FOR 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

The movement for industrial education is a part of a great 
educational advance which extends over the whole civilized 
world. It results from the attempt to bring about universal and 
appropriate education. It frankly recognizes that all cannot have 
and do not need the same education. It takes cognizance of the 
enormous increase in the sum total of human knowledge and 
art which the last century has brought, and the ever-increasing 
gap which separates this sum total from the capacity of the 
most receptive and most assiduous student. It is strongly in- 
fluenced by the principle that, in making the selection of the 
knowledge and art which any individual or group of individuals 
should acquire, the vocational purpose should be second only to 
the moral and social purposes, with which, in fact, it is rarely 
in opposition. Thus vocational education is the larger term and 
includes professional, commercial, and agricultural education, 
education in domestic arts and sciences, and industrial educa- 
tion. It is to the consideration of this latter phase of modern 
educational advance that our discussions are to be specifically 
directed. 

Industrial education means the complete and appropriate edu- 
cation of industrial workers of whatever grade. It therefore 
means much more than the introduction of shopwork into the 



2 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

present curriculum, — the addition of another subject, however 
important that subject may be. It means a thorough revision 
of our school system with the purpose of furnishing for the 
working classes an education which bears somewhat the same 
relation to their prospective life work as does the college edu- 
cation to the future work of the professional and managerial 
classes. It means that, at whatever grade it may be introduced, 
it will be a type of secondary education, and will presuppose a 
basis of general cultural training and provide for considerable 
variety in both the length and the breadth of the special super- 
structure. It means reality. The word "reality" is used here in 
contradistinction to artificiality. Industrial education, therefore, 
provides participation in, rather than fancied preparation for, 
some activity. It means practice in real work for real people 
as an effective medium of education. It means, in the final 
analysis, the fitting of a particular boy for a particular job, and 
it is therefore strongly individualistic. 

For the student of education it means the study of real con- 
ditions, — not alone the conditions of children in the schools, 
but also, and perhaps primarily, the conditions of children who, 
in the past, have benefited the least from formal education. He 
must be interested to study the children who lag as well as those 
who progress, those who can spend little as well as those who 
can spend much time in school training, those aiming toward 
the market, the shop, or the farm as well as those preparing 
for college. He must inquire at what ages children leave school 
and for what reasons ; what they do after leaving, and with what 
profit or success. He must make a study of industrial methods 
and developments, and of the industrial and social opportunities 
open to the rising generation. 

He should endeavor to make careful and specific adjustment 
of educational principles and practices to these conditions, and 
to work out in detail courses of study suitable for typical cases. 



MOVEMENT FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ^3 

While industrial education is specific rather than general, it 
is desirable to examine some general principles in order to 
establish a basis for comparison and standards of measurement. 

The problem which confronts us is a social problem. It in- 
volves the study of the evolution of industry, —a knowledge of the 
varying conditions under which people have lived and worked, 
and especially their chances for safety, comfort, and progress. 
This will lead the student of education to the consideration of 
the present status of the industrial worker, of industrial systems, 
and of organizations of capital and labor. It will show him that 
the movement for industrial education is itself evolving, and 
that therefore we should not seek finality but rather should 
try to discover the nature of the present need, the kind of 
training required to meet it, and the agencies which can best 
furnish this training. 

In the restricted meaning of the word " education " this is 
also an educational problem, that is to say, a problem for the 
schools. It is therefore important to determine to what extent 
it is a problem of general education and to what extent a problem 
of special education. In other words, it should be decided to 
what extent it may be afforded by our existing types of schools, 
and to what extent special institutions must be provided. It 
will thus involve at least a superficial study of the history of 
American education in order that the trend of the people's 
schools may be seen and appreciated. 

At the outset the real problem which the mere name of our 
subject indicates should be frankly admitted. 

Industry is concerned primarily with material production. 

Education is concerned primarily with the unfolding of 
human powers. 

The mainspring of industrial development has been the 
desire to produce more and better goods at a decreased cost. 
While this effort has resulted in commendable expenditure of 



4 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

energy, ingenious invention, and the beneficial economy of 
marvelous organization, frequently it has led to systematic ex- 
ploitation, — the exploitation of our soil, our forests, our mines, 
our rivers, and, lastly, our children. 

With all the errors which organized education has ever made, 
its ideal has been the unfolding and perfecting of all that is 
best and highest in human nature. Its mainspring has been 
the belief that the conservation of the child's best powers and 
resources was to be attained by submission to a constantly in- 
creasing period of school attendance. 

So industry, at its worst, stands for exploitation, while edu- 
cation, at its best, means conservation. Thus there is here a 
genuine problem, according to Dr. Dewey, who says that "a 
problem is genuine just because the elements^ taken as they 
stand, are conflicting." 

It is fundamentally important to discover where these two are 
consistent and where antagonistic, and when this is done the 
duty of the educator will be quite clear. It is safe to say that 
his ideal, as stated above, will need no modification, but his 
judgment regarding educational values and his ideas regarding 
educational methods will doubtless undergo some modification. 

In addition to recognizing the genuine conflict between the 
primary incentive of industry and the final end of education, it 
is also essential that the extreme complication of the problem 
be constantly kept in mind. It is obviously impossible to attack 
the problem from all sides at once, yet conclusions regarding 
any one phase of the question may be subject to modification 
when examined from another viewpoint. The complexity will 
be apparent if one reflects on the following questions, which indi- 
cate points of view from which the subject might be approached. 

Can the principle of the elimination of waste, which has been 
so productive of advance in the industrial world, be applied with 
equally good results to educational activities .-* 



MOVEMENT FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 5 

What interests have capital and labor in the movement for 
industrial education ? To what extent are they identical, and 
in what respects are they antagonistic ? 

What has been the traditional attitude of wealth toward pop- 
ular education ? 

Have we classes in American society? Admitting the pos- 
sibility afforded the individual of passing from one class to 
another, what are the probabilities that any considerable propor- 
tion of wage earners can ever change their status to that of 
employers ? 

What relation, if any, exists between industrial progress and 
the evolution of the school system ? 

What part have the schools taken in the application of art 
and science to modern industry ? 

To what extent is our present division of elementary and 
secondary education fortuitous, and to what extent the result of 
purposeful planning ? 

What is demanded of education in a democracy ? 

What educational practices of to-day most clearly indicate the 
trend of popular education ? 

Are the present standards of the schools in keeping with 
existing social and industrial conditions ? 

If these and similar questions were pondered by all educators, 
there would be such a revision of educational ideals and methods 
as the country has never yet witnessed. In fact, the present 
movement for vocational education is the best indication that 
these questions are now engaging the serious consideration of 
the thinking educational world. 

It is not the purpose of this volume to discuss specifically 
each of the questions suggested above. It is believed, however, 
that one who finds his major interest in any one of these ques- 
tions will discover in the following pages something vitally 
related to it. 



6 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

It is from a study of such questions that one becomes con- 
vinced that radical educational reform is imminent and inevitable. 
It is evident that our present school systems are out of harmony 
with social and industrial organization. 

Some of the more pertinent facts relating to the social organ- 
ization may well be briefly considered. First of all will be found 
the wage system itself. As we know, the system places upon 
the individual the responsibility for his own and for his family's 
support. It is individualistic, not socialistic. It works well for 
the fortunate, but for many unfortunate it has worked such evil 
that it is frequently referred to as " wage slavery." At all events, 
it has produced two distinct classes with interests apparently 
widely divergent, if not diametrically opposed, — the employers 
and the employed. We find also that it has led to an exceed- 
ingly unequal distribution not only of wealth but also of oppor- 
tunity for securing personal happiness, comfort, and satisfaction 
in the fundamental experiences of life. 

Dr. I.yman Abbott, in an article in The Outlook of August 6, 
19 lo, says: " In the second place, this wage system inevitably 
creates a concentration of wealth. It creates a small class of 
more or less, and generally increasingly, wealthy men, and a 
large class of more or less dependent men. The startling facts 
are thus given in Charles B. Spahr's book on 'The Present 
Distribution of Wealth,' the best book, I think, on the subject 
in the English language : ' To sum up the whole situation, 
therefore, it appears that the general distribution of incomes in 
the United States is wider and better than in most of the coun- 
tries of western Europe. Despite this fact, however, one eighth 
of the families in America receive more than half of the aggre- 
gate income, and the richest one per cent receives a larger income 
than the poorest fifty per cent. In fact this small class of wealthy 
property owners receives from property alone as large an income 
as half our people receive from property and labor.' " 



MOVEMENT FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 7 

Another series of pertinent facts are those relating to the 
minute subdivision of labor which is characteristic of mod- 
ern manufacture. These are set forth with great clearness in 
Bulletin No. 8 of the National Society for the Promotion of 
Industrial Education. The following quotation from page 21 is 
illustrative : 

" Let us compare some interesting figures relative to the 
saving in time and labor in shoes made by machines over those 
made by hand. Comparison is made in number of workmen 
employed, operations performed, hours of labor and cost of labor, 
in manufacturing 100 pairs of men's medium-grade calf, welt, 
lace shoes, single soles and soft box toes, in 1863 and in 1895. 
In 1863 manufacturing these 100 pairs by hand necessitated 73 
operations by one workman, with approximately 1831 hours of 
work, at a labor cost of about $458. To make the same number 
of shoes of similar grade in 1895 by machine, there were 173 
operations, 371 workmen, the time being approximately 234 
hours, and the cost of labor ^60. In manufacturing cheaper 
shoes the saving in time and labor in the machine product is 
even more striking." 

From the foregoing it becomes evident that the determining 
factor in industrial control is the ownership of the tools or 
machines, and that, as this ownership is in the hands of the 
comparatively few, the status of the mass of the wage earners 
is relatively permanent. 

If, with these social and economic conditions in mind, we 
examine our public-school systems, we are led to conclude that 
the ideals and machinery of a '' leisure-class " education still 
persist to a very considerable degree. Particularly convincing 
are those facts relating to the retardation of pupils in the public 
schools, and the final elimination of a very considerable propor- 
tion of them without any adequate education whatsoever. A 
publication of the Charities Publication Committee, New York, 



8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

entitled "' Laggards m our Schools," by Leonard P, Ayres, 
contains an enlightening exposition of this subject. It shows 
the difficulty of making any unqualified statement regarding 
retardation and elimination, but it forces the conviction that 
our present methods are failing with half of the children con- 
fided to the care of the public schools. 

It is therefore to the problem of providing an adequate and 
appropriate education for the industrial workers that the follow- 
ing chapters are specifically addressed. 

Other studies relating to the subsequent vocational experi- 
ences of these ""laggards" lead to the conclusion that the 
schools have not only failed to awaken in large numbers of 
their pupils an interest in study but have engendered a distaste 
for work of any kind, particularly for manual work. These 
young people seem to have received no training in the schools 
which helps them to cope with the peculiar difficulties of their 
social and economic environment, but, on the contrary, it appears 
that the attempts to "'educate" them have actually contributed 
to their failure in the industrial world. 



CHAPTER II 

MANUAL TRAINING AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

From the foregoing chapter it will readily appear that the move- 
ment for industrial education is so vast, and its ramifications so 
numerous, that confusion and misunderstandings are inevitable. 

One factor which has contributed to this confusion has been 
the indiscriminate use of the two terms "' marmal training " and 
"industrial training." A very considerable number of school 
men to-day employ these terms as if they were synonymous. 

Recent attempts have been made, notably by the Committee 
of Ten of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial 
Education, to formulate such definitions as would serve to com- 
pletely differentiate the terms, but the results have not been 
wholly successful. It is not our purpose to fix definite limita- 
tions, but rather to sketch the development of the general 
movement which includes both manual training and industrial 
education. It should be possible to determine in which portion 
of the educational field each is most effective, and which por- 
tions they occupy in common. 

At the very inception of the manual-training movement will 
be found the vocational idea. Speaking quite generally, this is 
also true of all types of American schools. Our existing high or 
secondary schools, so-called, were originally established with a 
vocational purpose clearly stated or implied. For example, let 
us note the development of the high schools in Boston, since the 
oldest free public school in the United States, and one in which 
traditional education holds full sway, is included in that system. 
The Boston Latin School was, and is, a vocational school, more 

9 



lO EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

truly vocational than many of the manual-training and industrial 
schools throughout the country. It was founded as a preparatory 
school for Harvard College, which, in its turn, was established 
to train men for the ministry, in order that the colony might not 
have an illiterate clergy. Naturally many changes in the public- 
school system have come about since the establishment of this 
school (April, 1635), and it should be noted that these changes 
have been demanded by the public, and usually have been en- 
forced by legislative enactment. To the Latin School there have 
been added the English High School, originally planned to fit 
for nonprofessional life ; the Mechanic Arts High School, origi- 
nally planned to. fit for the industries; the Commercial High 
School for Boys; and the Practical Arts High School for Girls, 
whose names clearly reflect their purposes. 

Returning specifically to the introduction of manual training, 
it is important to note that not only was the vocational idea 
prominent in the establishment of the Mechanic Arts High 
School in Boston, but that the same was true of the manual- 
training high schools in St. Louis, Chicago, Toledo, Cleveland, 
and Philadelphia, which preceded it. 

The immediate impulse for this movement may possibly have 
been found in the Philadelphia Exposition in 1876. Here was 
shown the laboratory method applied to the teaching of the 
mechanic arts, as employed in the Imperial Technical School at 
Moscow, Russia. Two of the pioneers of manual training in 
this country, Professor John D. Runkel, at that time president 
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technolog}^ and Professor 
Calvin M. Woodward, of the Engineering Department of the 
Washington LIniversity at St. Louis, saw this exhibit and made 
such recommendations as resulted in definite action by these two 
institutions. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology estab- 
lished on August 17, 1876, a department known as the School 
of Mechanic Arts. This was opened to boys of high-school age, 



MANUAL TRAINING II 

and was continued for several years, finally being abandoned 
when the Mechanic Arts High School was about to be estab- 
lished by the school board as a part of the public-school system 
of the city of Boston. 

The Manual Training School at St. Louis was established on 
June 6, 1879. From the first it has received boys of high-school 
age, preparing its pupils not only for higher technical schools 
but also for commercial and industrial pursuits. 

In January, 1884, the Commercial Club of Chicago established 
and endowed the Chicago Manual Training School. In 1884 
courses in manual training were organized for the high-school 
pupils of Cleveland.. This was done under private initiative, and 
the work was continued until 1892, when the city established 
manual training as a part of the free public-school system. In 
the same year Toledo established courses of manual training to 
be given in connection with the public high school, using for 
this purpose a certain trust fund. In this year, also, Baltimore 
established a similar school. 

By 1893 manual training had been introduced into the high- 
school curricula, instruction being given either in separate schools 
or in the existing schools, in many cities, notably, in addition 
to those already mentioned, Cambridge, Fall River, Springfield 
(Massachusetts), Boston, New Orleans, Wilmington, Providence, 
New York, Albany, Omaha, Carson City, Washington, Chicago, 
Indianapolis, St. Paul, and Minneapolis. 

Not only was manual training established in high schools, but 
efforts were made very early to secure its introduction into the 
elementary schools. One of the most far-reaching influences of 
the Swedish sloyd system is to be found in the insistence of its 
early advocates that handwork was an essential in the educa- 
tion of young children. 

Here, too, private munificence and enterprise were important 
factors. As early as 1882 classes were established in the public 



12 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

schools of Boston, supported by the generosity of Mrs. Ouincy 
A. Shaw, and a Manual Training Committee was appointed by 
the school board in 1884. Within ten years manual training, 
in the form of woodworking, had been introduced into the ele- 
mentary schools of many cities. Among them may be mentioned 
Washington, New Haven, St. Paul, Montclair, New York, 
Jamestown, Cleveland, Boston, Brookline, Springfield (Massa- 
chusetts), Chicago, Waltham, and Salem. 

Whether in elementary or in high school, the work proposed 
by the earliest advocates of manual training was urged because 
of its vocational significance. In the report of a public-school 
board in 1878, occurs the following: 

"The question of teaching trades in our schools is one of 
vital importance. If New England would maintain her place 
as the great industrial center of the country, she must become 
to the United States what France is -to the rest of Europe, the 
first in taste, the first in design, the first in skilled workman- 
ship. She must accustom her children from early youth to the 
use of tools, and give them a thorough training in the mechanic 
arts." 

The interest awakened by the novelty of this new type of 
school work soon divided the opinions of school men. Probably 
the majority were indifferent ; some assumed the attitude of 
active advocates, and others that of vigorous opposition. 

Those who opposed the introduction of manual training took 
the ground that the purpose of public instruction was to develop 
general culture rather than to provide for vocational eflficiency. 
The school was to develop character and general intelligence. 

The advocates of the new education were thereby led to 
emphasize what they conceived to be the cultural value of con- 
structive work. It was said that " the entire history of man, if 
examined carefully, finally reveals itself in the history of the 
invention of better tools." It was pointed out that man was 



MANUAL TRAINING 1 3 

distinguished from all other creatures by his ability to use tools, 
and that the stages in his development had been marked by the 
increasing degree of excellence to which these tools had been 
brought. It was seen that tool work afforded relaxation from the 
tedium of purely intellectual book work, and also offered oppor- 
tunity for another form of expression and thereby supplied 
serious defects in the education of that day. 

Following the example of its prominent advocates, the teachers 
of manual training very early began to deny that the practical 
value of the work was paramount, and to insist that their function, 
like that of the teachers of Greek and Latin, was to develop the 
character of the pupil, not to increase his potential economic 
value. They said, " We are not teaching a trade, we are educat- 
ing children ; not teaching them to earn a living, but teaching 
them to live." 

Another circumstance which contributed to the formulizing 
of manual training was the advent of educational psychology. 
Students of manual training and of psychology felt that the 
subjects were vitally related. Attention was diverted from the 
obvious, practical benefits of handwork to the subtler and more 
far-reaching results which, they said, could be fully revealed only 
by reference to physiological psychology. The interrelation of 
the mind and hand, the coordination of the intellectual and 
physical, formed the basis of many public discourses and the 
more or less clearly defined groundwork for courses of study. 

The result of this discussion was to establish the claim that 
manual training had a distinct cultural value, and it is probable 
that it was because of the general acceptance of this proposition 
by educators that the new form of educational activity was so 
speedily and generally established. 

The acceptance of the theory of the educational value of 
manual training did not, of course, insure its immediate or ade- 
quate introduction into the school system. Conservatism of those 



14 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

in authority, the lack of accurate information, the impossibihty 
of securing a sufficient number of competent teachers, and the 
very considerable expense of equipment and maintenance, — all 
contributed to keep accomplishment far behind accepted prin- 
ciple. Nevertheless, many schools and classes were established 
and few have ever been discontinued. In some school systems 
a pupil may now receive manual training from the kindergarten 
through the high school. Much intelligent thought has been 
expended on determining the content of courses of study and 
the disciplinary value of methods of instruction. On the whole 
there appears to be much justification in facts for such state- 
ments and definitions as are found in the following quotations : 

" To cultivate the hand and eye is to enlarge the material for 
thought and the food for thought." 

" Manual training gives the individual more complete com- 
mand of himself and a keen sense of physical realities, more 
practical control of " things " and physical processes, a sense of 
the social significance of industries, more social intelligence and 
social enthusiasm, and the capacity to sense accurately, to think 
truly, and to judge logically." 

" Manual training is needful for every individual irrespective 
of his calling or professional career. The boy in the grades or 
in high school is sent to the school shop, not because he is to 
be a carpenter ; he is sent there, though it be already clear that 
he is to be an attorney or a physician or a clergyman." 

" Clear reason, self-control, stability, equilibrium of character, 
strong will, and wise accommodation of the thing wished for 
to the conditions of life are the characteristics by which all human 
efficiency is attained. Psychology has recognized with perfect 
clearness the conditions under which these characteristics can 
be developed ; when this knowledge has once gained a victori- 
ous entrance into pedagogy, then the old motto of the school 
workshop at Leipzig will become a motto for every school and 



MANUAL TRAINING 



15 



educational institution : ' Train the eye, exercise the hand, 
strong will be the will, clear the understanding.' " 

" Simply as an aid to coordination, manual training would 
justify itself, were that the sole point of its educational bearing. 
As a matter of fact, however, this is its most elementary utility. 
It serves much higher uses in bringing out individuality, in 
awakening desire for learning, in stimulating the will to take 
complete and wise command." 

"It is only when one has experienced the shock of misfit be- 
tween what he has thought will hold, on the one hand, and what 
he finally finds to be true, on the other, it is only then that one 
is really sharpened to the point of developing good judgment. 
Leave out the test of practice, and people can think all sorts of 
things and be entirely wrong. We need headers such as practice 
brings, in order to develop sanity or efficiency. Manual train- 
ing, because it provides this test, is superior to many other sub- 
jects. A well-educated man is one, therefore, who can do as 
well as know, and efficiency is a good term for the statement 
of the aim of education, because it includes these two factors." 

" Manual training is any form of constructive work that serves 
to develop the powers of the pupil through spontaneous and in- 
telligent self-activity. The power of observation is developed 
through exacting demands upon the senses, the reason by con- 
stant necessity for thought before action, and the will by the 
formation of habits of patient, careful application." 

"In many instances manual training has so vitalized the school 
work, or has so infused new interests into the minds of many 
boys that they reveal an added interest in other subjects." 

" One of the chief values of shopwork, weaving, gardening, 
etc., even in elementary schools, is that they introduce the 
pupil to natural facts and forces and give him a motive for 
becoming thoroughly acquainted with the concrete facts and 
laws of nature." 



1 6 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

" Now manual training leads all other school work in its power 
to develop fidelity to ideals, because our work remains as a visual 
tangible thing, just as we have made it." 

" The manual-training department of the school offers to the 
adolescent child an excellent opportunity, in many instances, to 
discover his individual and peculiar bent of mind or proclivity." 

" Manual training in the shop satisfies this deep longing to 
be doing something with the hands. It makes amends for the 
great wrong done boyhood in transporting it to the city." 

" On the intellectual side our school manual training develops 
distinctly the power to grasp an idea and embody it, — equips 
the boy with a wide knowledge of methods, devices, recipes, and 
machines for accomplishing the ends of art," 

" The best values in manual training are in the habits, 
ideals, and attitudes it fosters. It interests many pupils who 
are not successful in other school studies, gives a sense of 
capacity, power, and effectiveness to many a boy who is almost 
ready to accept the teacher's estimate of his incapacity and 
worthlessness." 

" The fact that manual training offers a change of work amply 
justifies its introduction into the crowded school curriculum." 

"The purpose of manual training is to secure a vigorous 
mental reaction through the pupil's manual activity and through 
his interest in the constructive problem. Benefit to the worker 
results only when this reaction is real and vital." 

If asked to state the purpose of giving instruction in manual 
training, most teachers of the subject to-day would urge one or 
more of the following, with greater or less elaboration : to develop 
manual skill ; to create an interest in industries ; to promote the 
coordination of the mind and hand ; to provide a corrective for 
a too bookish education ; to provide another approach to the 
mind ; to provide another means of expression ; to enable one 
to apply the test of practice. 



MANUAL TRAINING 1 7 

Thus manual training has ultimately gained general accept- 
ance in the public schools of the country, quite apart from any 
utilitarian consideration whatsoever. Meanwhile other agencies 
than the schools have been at work, and the result has been a 
rcnezved demand that indiLstrial education be actively promoted 
by the state. This demand will be more fully analyzed in other 
chapters, but it must be noted in this connection that prominent 
among these agencies are the report of the first Massachusetts 
Industrial Commission in 1906, the formation in 1906 and the 
subsequent activity of the National Society for the Promotion 
of Industrial Education, and the Washington meeting of the 
Department of Superintendence of the National Education 
Association in 1908. 

The report of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial 
Education was made nearly a quarter of a century after manual 
training was first introduced into the schools of the state. This 
report has perhaps done more to shape thought and action 
throughout the country than any other volume which has been 
written on the subject of industrial education, yet it devotes 
less than half a page to manual training and disposes of it as 
follows : " It [manual training] has been urged as a cultural sub- 
ject, mainly useful as a stimulus to other forms of intellectual 
effort, — a sort of mustard relish, an appetizer, to be conducted 
without any reference to any industrial end. It has been severed 
from real life as completely as have the other school activities. 
Thus it has come about that the overmastering influences of 
school traditions have brought into subjection both the drawing 
and the manual work." 

The meeting at Washington produced a profound impres- 
sion on the educational thought of the country. Addresses 
by James E. Russell, dean of Teachers College, Columbia 
University ; Edward C. Elliott, professor of education. Univer- 
sity of Wisconsin ; James F. McElroy, consulting engineer. 



1 8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Consolidated Car Heating Company, Albany, New York ; and 
Miss Elizabeth Euphrosyne Langley, School of Education, The 
University of Chicago, called attention to the real meaning of 
the retardation of pupils in our public schools, and the final 
elimination of a large proportion of them before the com- 
pletion of the work of the elementary grades. It was shown 
conclusively that these eliminated pupils were the ones for 
whom industrial education should have been provided. 

It is also for the education of those not adequately served by 
the traditional schools that the National Society for the Promo- 
tion of Industrial Education is conducting its effective campaign. 

It should therefore be clear that the Massachusetts Com- 
mission was partly in error in saying that manual training had 
no industrial value. When it is recalled that manual training 
was first introduced into the high schools, and was only tardily 
extended to the upper grades of the elementary schools, and 
that a large proportion of the pupils needing industrial training 
leave school before reaching those grades, it will be readily 
understood why manual training has seemed to so many to be 
ineffective and without vocational value. 

It is undoubtedly true that if the manual training, even though 
it has been " brought into subjection " by the " overmastering 
influence of school tradition," could be given to these retarded 
and eliminated pupils at the right time, it would be found to 
have a considerable industrial value. It would be as stimulating 
to these as it has always proved to be for the more successful 
pupils. At all events it will continue to form a part of the curric- 
ula of existing schools with a wider rather than a narrower scope. 

That industrial education means something else and some- 
thing more than the introduction of a minimum amount of 
handwork into the schools has already been stated, and to the 
consideration of this larger phase of the subject the following 
chapters will be addressed. 



CHAPTER III 

THE DEMAND — AN ANALYSIS 

We have seen that manual training received its original im- 
petus from a demand for industrial education, but that, through 
maladjustment to school organization, it failed somewhat of its 
purpose. Recently a renewed demand has gradually become 
apparent. Failure to understand the nature of this demand 
has already caused much unnecessary confusion and misunder- 
standing even among those who are earnestly striving to meet 
it. An analysis of this demand, which is far more complicated 
than was commonly supposed a decade since, is thus of primary 
importance. 

Demands have come from the manufacturing interests, from 
organized labor, from educators, and from societies formed to 
promote the social well-being of men and women. To these 
might be added the demand of the youthful workers them- 
selves, though this demand is implied in actions rather than 
stated in words. 

It is impossible to say which of the active agencies has led 
and which followed. It is certain that one of the first industrial 
schools in the country was established and supported by a labor 
union ; yet, after a careful study of the demand of organized 
labor, it is difficult to escape the conclusion that labor's chief 
interest in the movement arises from a desire to control it, as 
far as possible, for the purpose of regulating the labor market 
in the interest of organized labor, and, as it believes, of humanity. 
That this desire is consistent and, under the circumstances, justi- 
fiable does not change the facts. 

19 



20 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Associations of educators have been much interested for the 
past few years, if one may judge by the number of papers on 
the subject noted in the programs of their conventions ; yet it 
seems, in many cases, as if educators were restating rather than 
making a demand. This impression gains strength when one 
compares their statement of the problem with their suggestions 
for its solution, for these rarely seem to be consistent. 

On the whole, inasmuch as the forces behind each movement 
for the enlargement of the function of the public school have 
been sociological rather than pedagogical, it seems probable that 
the demand has come primarily, or at least most effectively, 
from the manufacturinc: and commercial interests. 



The Demand of the Manufacturers 

Manufacturers are insisting that industrial education is needed 
for the salvation of our industries and the maintenance of the 
industrial supremacy of the country. Statistics are not wanting 
to show that we enjoy, or have enjoyed, such supremacy. If 
we have, how was it attained ? We had, at the time of our 
greatest industrial expansion, certain tremendous advantages 
over all others. We had a profusion of cheap raw material, 
much available water power and water transportation, virile 
native workmen of great adaptability and trained by means 
of our own apprenticeship systems, large numbers of skilled 
workmen from European countries, and later we utilized, not 
to say exploited, an abundance of cheap child labor. 

During the past fifty years these advantages have gradually 
become less marked. Raw material has been wasted and monop- 
olized. Skilled labor is relatively scarce. The remnant of the 
apprenticeship system has little influence on the supply of 
trained workers. The character of immigration has radically 
changed, and the skilled workmen of Germany, England, and 



THE DEMAND — AN ANALYSIS 2 1 

Scandinavia are no longer attracted to our shores in large 
numbers, because the opportunities for advancement here are 
not sufficiently superior to those of their own countries. Efforts 
to prevent the exploitation of child labor are meeting with ever- 
increasing success. With the disappearance of former advan- 
tages, the manufacturer is forced to reduce the cost of production 
wherever possible, and his demand for industrial education is an 
attempt to eliminate the unprofitable period of apprenticeship. 

It is true that the changes brought about in industrial methods, 
through the introduction of machinery of more and more com- 
plicated and automatic type, have made it possible to employ 
effectively a large number of unskilled or low-skilled workers, 
and of these there is no dearth. But the demand of the manu- 
facturer to-day is for the higher grades of labor. Apparently 
he will be satisfied if the public schools succeed in training for 
him a large number of the most intelligent boys and girls for 
the better industrial positions. His plans for industrial educa- 
tion rarely touch the relatively unintelligent and wholly unskilled, 
who leave the schools in such astonishingly large numbers, at 
from twelve to fifteen years of age, and enter the lowest grades 
of industrial employment. At best these plans contemplate 
opportunities for a very small percentage of such children, 
and these the most able. 

It is obviously unjust to maintain that all manufacturers are 
actuated by purely selfish motives in advocating industrial edu- 
cation, for of course they differ in their attitude toward their 
social duty ; but the following quotations will show with sufficient 
clearness that the manufacturers are concerned primarily and 
naturally with the material product and only incidentally with 
the problem of education. 

In response to the question, " Why do you believe in indus- 
trial education ? " the following answers have been made by 
manufacturers. 



2 2 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

" Because my company employs about one thousand men, 
and we need men of better skill." 

" Because in every branch of industry with which we are fa- 
miliar, it is impossible to obtain efficient workers to take the 
place of skilled men who are dropping out from death and dis- 
ability ; and as a nation in competition with others, Germany in 
particular, we are bound to suffer seriously on this account." 

" Because we employ a large number of boys, and the present 
school system is turning out boys who do not want to work with 
their hands." 

" Because I feel the necessity of a more practical education 
to be given through our public schools. Book education has 
been pressed to its limit by educational people, and is not based 
on practical business experience." 

" Because 85 per cent of the pupils now getting their school- 
ing are being crammed, well-meaningly, with a mass of knowledge 
which is not practical," 

A large manufacturer in a small community felt that, inas- 
much as he paid a large share of the taxes, the school ought to 
make some return to him for his money, by giving definite in- 
struction in matters pertaining to his particular industry. 

A manufacturer of sufficient importance to obtain a place on 
a recent program of the National Education Association made 
the following statements in an open letter. 

"How can we make our schools, upon which we spend more 
money than any other people, fit our children for their life work, 
and furnish our industries, the source of our national wealth, 
with their arpiy of skilled and willing workers ? The leaders of 
educational thought have been at work during the last century 
in creating our public school as it exists to-day, in formulating 
methods of instruction in reading, writing, spelling, history, and 
geography, that is, for teaching book subjects. Our professional 
educators are too much cut off from contact with active life to 



THE DEMAND — AN ANALYSIS 23 

feel the need of our time. Business men, conscious of the crisis, 
must give the impulse." 

A manufacturer, prominent enough to be president of the 
National Association of Manufacturers, says : " The call for us 
to round out and extend our educational systems is more im- 
perative than was ever issued to any other people in the world's 
history. We must be equipped to rise to an opportunity such 
as was never before offered. While we have but 5 per cent of 
the world's population, we produce 

25 per cent of the world's gold 

33 per cent of the world's coal 

38 per cent of the world's silver 

40 per cent of the world's iron 

42 per cent of the world's steel 

52 per cent of the world's petroleum 

55 per cent of the world's copper 

70 to 75 per cent of the world's cotton. 

" There are three ways in which we can dispose of this wealth. 
We can let the other countries manufacture for us the raw 
products, or we can import foreign mechanics, or we can educate 
our sons to shape these materials into finished fabrics and to 
become sellers of these articles to the rest of the world." 

Another prominent manufacturer voices his opinions re- 
garding education and industry as follows : 

" I consider trade schools a just charge on the public treasury, 
much more so than the advanced teaching now given, which I 
think has been carried too far, I believe a large amount of the 
money spent in high schools would be better spent in adding 
industrial training to the grammar schools. ... I favor, 
decidedly, schools conducted by or under the auspices of manu- 
facturing concerns. ... If a manufacturing concern claims 
no moral obligation, but states that the only claims on its 



24 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

graduates will be the attractions to its service offered after the 
schooling, I believe the state would do well to assist such a 
school by advice, and, under certain local conditions, by a 
money grant, if required standards are maintained." 

Some manufacturers are advocating industrial education as 
an effective weapon in the warfare between capital and labor. 
While this phase of the question has not assumed important 
proportions so far as actual accomplishment is concerned, the 
persistent attitude of the National Association of Manufacturers 
cannot be entirely ignored. It is an attitude of utter hostility 
to labor unions and a denial of their right to a voice in the final 
settlement of the complicated questions involved in this move- 
ment. It asserts the paramount interest of the manufacturer. 
The last annual report of the president of this association 
(May, 191 1) contains the following paragraphs: 

"This association, along with others, has for a number of years 
strongly advocated a system of manual and technical training 
as part of the general educational system of the country. But it 
has not, nor does not now, overlook the dangerous tendencies 
incident thereto ; and by this I mean the danger of such a 
system falling under the influence and domination of the labor 
agitator." 

"Militant unionism is the bitterest foe industrial education has 
got or ever had ; yet under the impetus which the proposition 
has attained, and its apparent necessity, — if for no other pur- 
pose than to meet the restrictions placed upon our supply of 
skilled mechanics by the labor unions, — we find some of the 
labor leaders who are most responsible for the curtailment of 
our supply of skilled mechanics, and who stand unqualifiedly for 
its continued curtailment, taking a hand in and coming to the 
front in the movement for industrial education. And, unfortu- 
nately, we find men who are earnestly devoting their time, en- 
ergies, and money to promote this important work, not only 



THE DEMAND — AN ANALYSIS 25 

willing to serve on boards and committees with these labor 
leaders, but apparently impressed with what seems to me to be 
an absurdly false and erroneous idea that those men, with their 
persistent antagonism to the vital principle of industrial educa- 
tion, are essential to its advancement." 

" I have not the slightest patience with a policy which seeks 
the accomplishment of a good purpose through the aid of men 
who stand for a bad cause and who are avowedly the enemies 
of that purpose ; men who authoritatively represent less than 
5 per cent of the laboring forces of the country, and those by 
no means the better elements, and who woefully misrepresent all 
the balance, I care not what the pretenses of such men may be, 
nor how often they may escape the penalties of the law for their 
violation of it. I feel, however, I am safe in saying that the an- 
tagonism of this association to the closed shop and the methods 
employed to establish it is too strongly intrenched in the minds 
of its members ever to permit of any mixing up with the labor 
trust in its policy with respect to industrial education." 

" Now, whatever may be said or whoever may take part in 
this problem of industrial education, it is the manufacturer who 
must steer it to a practical solution ; without him it can amount 
to but little more than a delusion and a farce. It is the associa- 
tions of manufacturers that have given the subject its present 
impetus." 

This particular aspect of the demand of the manufacturers, 
related as it is to the demand of organized labor, can be dis- 
cussed more intelligently in the succeeding chapter. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE DEMAND OF ORGANIZED LABOR 

As previously stated, organized labor has been interested for 
many years in the subject of industrial education. It claims, 
with some reason, that this interest is most vital to its members, 
being closely related to the very existence of their organization 
and to the maintenance of their present personal status. One of 
the most significant authoritative statements of organized labor 
regarding industrial education was made in November, 19 lO, by 
Mr. Charles H. Winslow when he said, " We do not beg it as a 
favor, but we demand it as a right." 

But while organized labor demands industrial education, in- 
dividual unions are more willing to say just what kind of train- 
ing they do not want, than to outline a constructive policy. 
Labor unions also differ greatly from each other in their 
attitude toward the question, because of the variety of conditions 
obtaining in the several trades. 

These facts make analysis of labor's demand peculiarly dif- 
ficult, but perhaps no more comprehensive statement of its views 
can be found than the resolutions passed by the American 
Federation of Labor, authorizing the appointment of a com- 
mittee to investigate the whole subject. These resolutions were 
adopted at the annual convention at Denver, held in Novem- 
ber, 1908. 

Whereas industrial education is necessary and inevitable for the prog- 
ress of an industrial people ; and 

Whereas there are two groups with opposite methods, and seeking an- 
tagonistic ends, now advocating industrial education in the United 
States ; and 

26 



THE DEMAND OF ORGANIZED LABOR 27 

Whereas one of these groups is largely composed of the nonunion em- 
ployers of the country who advance industrial education as a special priv- 
ilege under conditions that educate the student or apprentice to nonunion 
sympathies and prepare him as a skilled worker for scab labor and strike- 
breaking purposes, thus using the children of the workers against the in- 
terests of their organized fathers and brothers in the various crafts ; and 

Whereas this group also favors the training of the student or apprentice 
for skill in only one industrial process, thus making the graduate a skilled 
worker in only a very limited sense and rendering him entirely helpless if 
lack of employment comes in his single subdivision of a craft ; and 

Whereas the other group is composed of great educators, enlightened 
representatives of organized labor, and persons engaged in genuine social 
service, who advocate industrial education as a common right to be open 
to all children on equal terms, to be provided by general taxation, and 
kept under the control of the whole people with a method or system 
of education that will make the apprentice or graduate a skilled craftsman 
in all branches of his trade ; and 

Whereas organized labor has the largest personal and the highest public 
interest in the subject of industrial education, and should enlist its ablest 
and best men in behalf of the best system, under conditions that will promote 
the interests of the workers and the general welfare : Now, therefore, be it 

Resolved^ That the president in conjunction with the executive coun- 
cil of the American Federation of Labor, be, and is hereby, authorized to 
appoint a special committee of at least fifteen, to be composed of a 
majority of trade-union members of this convention, who will serve with- 
out compensation and incur no expenses other than necessary and 
legitimate expenditure within the judgment of the president and executive 
council, to investigate the methods and means of industrial education in this 
country and abroad, and report its findings, conclusions, and recommenda- 
tions to the next annual meeting of the American Federation of Labor. 

It is generally conceded, by Southerners themselves, that no 
question of public policy in the South can be considered entirely 
apart from the race problem. In much the same way, organized 
labor finds in every movement some connection with the supply 
and demand of labor. In the present instance labor discerns in 
the movement for industrial education a more or less concerted 
effort on the part of capital to capture the schools for the 
purpose of gaining a more complete control of the labor market. 



28 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

That labor has ground for suspicion is clearly shown by 
the attitude of some manufacturers. In support of this proposi- 
tion the American Federation of Labor quotes the following 
statement from the late James W, Van Cleave, a former presi- 
dent of the National Association of Manufacturers : 

" I would attach a manual-training department to every pub- 
lic primary school in the United States, where, beginning at the 
age of nine or ten, under competent teachers, boys could devote 
an hour a day to the handling of tools. I would make the in- 
struction compulsory. Thus at the age of fourteen the boy of 
average intelligence and application would be able to use many 
of the tools employed in those trades which are fundamental and 
important. Then I would have free industrial high schools 
where boys who had completed the primary course might con- 
tinue their education. Two years at such a school would qualify 
a student to take his place in the world as a first-rate mechanic. 
The supply of zvorkcrs being certain and adequate, the labor- 
union embargo on onr industries ivould soon, be permanently 
liftedr 

The reports of the Committee on Industrial Education of the 
National Association of Manufacturers for 1905 and 1906 ex- 
press somewhat similar views as follows : 

"It is the modern trade school, and that alone, that will make 
our American boys skilled artisans, educated mechanics, and hus- 
tling, adaptable, willing workmen, capable of filling any position." 

'" There are good reasons why it would be unwise to establish 
trade schools in this country at public expense. The initiative 
should be taken by corporations or private individuals." 

"' Technical and trade schools should have opportunities for 
teaching their students all the phases of practical work by pro- 
ducing manufactures of various kinds, which may be needed 
in the school, and, in addition, may be placed on sale to the 
general public." 



THE DEMAND OF ORGANIZED LABOR 



29 



" We cannot too strongly emphasize the certainty of disastrous 
results if American trade schools should be dominated by the 
labor unions." 

"It is trade schools pure and simple that we are in need of 
to turn out good skilled workmen, who can take positions in their 
various specialties and acquit themselves creditably alongside of 
workmen from this or any other country." 

" But knowing how sorely in need of skilled workmen we 
have been in this country during recent years, and considering 
the inefficiency of a large proportion of those now in the various 
trades, it seemed to us that such schools (private trade schools 
as commercial ventures) should be encouraged," 

" It is plain to see that trade schools properly protected from 
the domination and withering blight of organized labor are the 
one and only remedy for the present intolerable conditions. 
In this connection it will not be out of place to again warn those 
interested in the promotion of the movement for trade schools, 
to be ever watchful and diligent in guarding against the possi- 
bility of domination by labor unions, since it has been their 
policy heretofore to do everything in their power to discourage 
and defeat all efforts made to establish trade schools." 

" But we claim that such [evening] schools are established for 
the benefit of the boys who are not so fortunate as to be thus 
employed [as apprentices], and that under no circumstances 
should boys serving apprenticeships be permitted in the night 
classes, or for that matter in the day classes, to the exclusion 
of the boys not so employed." 

There is a claim frequently made by members of labor unions 
that trades cannot be taught as thoroughly and completely in a 
trade school as in the workshop, or on buildings, or wherever 
work is actually being carried on. Never was there a greater 
mistake. On the contrary, directly the opposite is true, with per- 
haps some rare exceptions such as locomotive building, which it 



30 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

is not intended to teach in trade schools, at least not for the 
present. From the very moment the boy enters the trade school 
he begins the actual study and work pertaining to his trade, and 
is taught by competent instructors from the smallest detail to the 
highest principles connected with that trade, and he is not given 
his indenture papers until he has thoroughly mastered his sub- 
ject. Of course it is reasonable to suppose that there would be 
a slight timidity shown by the boy when he starts out as a jour- 
neyman, just as in the case of a speaker who appears before an 
audience for the first time ; but this, after a few days or weeks, 
will pass away, and the boy who learned his trade in a trade 
school will be able to teach the old-style workman a trick 
or two." 

While the report of this committee for 1910 gives evidence 
of a broader and more social view than formerly taken, it 
leaves no room for doubt that there is a serious difference of 
opinion between capital and labor as regards industrial education. 

From the foregoing it should be evident that organized labor 
has excellent grounds for the fear that industrial education may 
be administered in such a way as to strike at unionism's most 
vital principles. The leaders of labor, therefore, have a right, if 
not an obligation, to devote careful attention to this aspect of 
the movement. In general it may be readily admitted that the 
spokesmen of organized labor are demanding public industrial 
schools, partly because they feel a need of appropriate training 
for the coming generation, but primarily because they see that 
this will be the most effective way of regulating the movement in 
their own interests, and especially because they believe it will 
effectually prevent the subsidizing and the patronage of schools 
maintained or controlled by the manufacturers. 

As citizens they can inquire into the nature of a school which 
a city or a state proposes to establish, and they exercise this 
right. As citizens they seek to regulate or even prevent such a 



THE DEMAND OF ORGANIZED LABOR 31 

school if they feel that in any way it is antagonistic to their 
interests, and as citizens their opinion has weight. 

It should be emphatically stated, however, that this is not 
labor's only interest in industrial education. The workingman 
may not be aware of the fact that in an average industrial 
community one fifth of the school money is spent in educating 
one twentieth of the children, but he is beginning to feel that his 
children are not receiving the education they most need, and he 
is expressing his conviction that the school work should be mod- 
ified to more adequately meet that need. He wants "the right 
kind " of industrial education. The following quotations from 
prominent labor leaders are offered as a partial corroboration 
of the above statements. 

" The public-school curriculum at present is based, in the case 
of the grammar school, on that of the high school. This I be- 
lieve is a mistake. If one were to take the children of twelve 
and for two years teach them to use tools, they would find them- 
selves better fitted for the battle of life." 

" I am in favor of industrial education. The form I favor is 
that of the preparatory and practical. ... I would have all 
trade schools open to all. I favor preparatory trade-school work 
under public auspices, but do not favor trade schools conducted 
by manufacturing concerns. I deprecate certain schools now or- 
ganized, referring in this to correspondence and other trade 
schools which cannot give practical education, and, because of 
this, deceive both the student and the employer." 

" Industrial education ought to provide for the children of the 
masses and for the great manufacturing and constructive indus- 
tries something equivalent to what the states are now doing for 
the children of the well-to-do in fitting them for professional and 
managerial careers." 

A man prominent in labor circles states that he has a large 
family and that his children will have to earn their living by 



32 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

working with their hands. He recognizes the probable per- 
manency of status of the wage worker. He desires that his 
children may begin a very definite trade training as early as 
twelve years of age, believing that ultimately they will be more 
successful in life than would be the case if they were to have 
a part or the whole of the traditional high-school training and 
then were to enter some trade without any preparation and with 
false notions about life and work. 

Perhaps the majority of workmen may not agree with him. It 
is true that they frequently desire a liberal education for their 
children, but it is equally true that in a large number of cases 
the education is interrupted when the boy reaches fourteen or 
fifteen or sixteen years. Reluctantly abandoning the hope of a 
classical or professional training, they demand an industrial 
training that, to use the words of the report of the American 
Federation of Labor, will give the pupil "between the ages of 
fourteen and sixteen a course of instruction in English, mathe- 
matics, physics, chemistry, elementary mechanics, and drawing ; 
the shop instruction for particular trades, and for each trade 
represented, the drawing, mathematics, mechanics, physical and 
biological sciences applicable to the trade, the history of that 
trade, and a sound system of economics, including and empha- 
sizing the philosophy of collective bargaining. This," the report 
confidently adds, " will serve to prepare the pupil for more ad- 
vanced subjects, and, in addition, to disclose his capacity for a 
specific vocation." 

Labor has a program which it will undoubtedly reveal in the 
near future. This program will contemplate a longer period of 
education, with the compulsory school age raised to at least six- 
teen years. It will insist that no element of general culture 
now included in the elementary education be eliminated, and it 
will strive for such an education as will tend to prevent the 
segregation of classes. 



THE DEMAND OF ORGANIZED LABOR t^t^ 

It cannot be claimed that labor has made no mistakes in its 
attitude toward this new movement. Labor has criticized the 
trade school on the one hand and the manual-training school on 
the other, claiming that the first gave only a narrow training in 
mere mechanical operations, without the underlying science and 
technology, and that the latter afforded only theoretical knowl- 
edge, which in itself was of no practical value. These are partial 
truths and as such are dangerous. The fact is that both trade 
schools and manual-training schools have given training of great 
industrial value to thousands of students, even though neither 
school can exactly duplicate the training gained by actual 
experience in a trade. 

Labor unions have sometimes objected to the practice of most 
industrial schools, of turning out a practical, finished product. 
The practice, while capable of undue and unnecessary expan- 
sion, is absolutely essential in many if not in most cases. It is 
encouraging that organized labor has at last placed itself on 
record as favoring " the minimum of production and the maxi- 
mum of instruction." 

Another mistake of organized labor is to be seen in its atti- 
tude toward the graduates or students of trade and industrial 
schools. The following resolution passed by the International 
Association of Machinists may be taken as illustrative of this 
kind of opposition. 

Whereas the report of the international president calls attention to the 
threatened danger to our apprenticeship system by the trade schools of 
the country, which issue certificates to students as graduates in the several 
trades ; and 

Whereas such so-called graduates of trade schools are frequently used by 
employers to prevent men gaining a higher wage or shorter hours ; therefore 
be it 

Resoh'ed., That the attention of our membership be called to this grow- 
ing evil, and urged to refuse to assist such so-called machinists who may be 
engaged as "improvers" or "men under instruction" in acquiring a more 
enlarged knowledge of the business. 



34 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

As is the case with the manufacturer, so with organized labor, 
greater hberahty and clearer comprehension are to be noted in 
more recent utterances. The following quotation is at once 
proof of the opposition offered by trade-unions to students of 
industrial schools, and of the fact that clearer understanding is 
being reached. 

James M. Lynch, president of the International Typographical 
Union, says : "A situation has arisen that we must meet. All 
the indications tend to the establishment of the opinion that the 
technical school is here to stay, and that its graduates are a factor 
that must be taken into consideration by the modern trade-union. 
If these apprentices, or partially instructed students, are not 
given opportunity to finish their trades in union shops, offices, 
mills, or factories, they will secure the needed finishing touches 
in the so-called open or nonunion shops, and there will be added 
to this a prejudice against the trade-unions because of lack of 
understanding of their ideas, methods, and practices. It is a big 
subject, becoming larger with the passage of time, and I repeat 
that it is a subject that must be met, and intelligently met, and 
whatever action may be taken to cover it must not be dictated by 
passion or prejudice. We must meet industrial development with 
trade-union development, and, if called upon, we must make sac- 
rifices for a time in order that the general good may later be 
conserved. We must not confine our opinions and thoughts to 
to-day ; we must look ahead and prepare for the morrow, and the 
morrow's morrow." 

As a fair and disinterested statement of the real situation the 
following quotation from an address by Mr. Frank A. Vanderlip 
is submitted for thoughtful consideration. 

'" Some of us are apt to find much fault with the labor situation. 
We criticize the attitude of the trade-unions and the demand of 
labor organizers. Might it not be well to remember that we have 
created an industrial condition in which, in a very large measure. 



THE DEMAND OF ORGANIZED LABOR 35 

one man's work is exactly like another's, and that in certain 
fields the work of all is largely automatic ; that our industrial 
situation is doing quite as much as the labor organizers to reduce 
to a dead level of equality the value of man's time in certain in- 
dustrial lines. If we want men who will think for themselves, 
must we not give them a training which will enable them to 
think correctly ? If we want men to become attached to their 
work and their positions, must we not give them an intellectual 
interest in that work ? If we want independence of thought in 
a workingman, must we not provide him with the opportunity to 
be something more than an automatic figure revolving without 
volition, interest, or active intelligence, as the wheels of industry 
revolve ? From the point of view alone of the attitude of the 
workingman toward the industrial problems of the clay, I believe 
we are doing less than our duty in the way of education and very 
much less than the selfish interests of capital would demand if 
employers had a clearer vision on this subject. 

" If it can be demonstrated that this is the correct view, that 
moderate and wise administration of the great democracy of or- 
ganized labor is more likely to follow if the masses of workmen 
are educated toward the better intellectual comprehension of the 
principles of the industries in which they are engaged, then 
what money value could be put in this country upon such a sys- 
tem of education as would ultimately give to organized labor 
wiser leaders } I believe that there is a profound and important 
truth in this view. If we drift toward a condition in which auto- 
matic workers live without intellectual interest in their work, we 
must expect them to follow, without independence of thought, 
unwise leaders along paths that will be destructive for capital and 
labor alike. If we offer educational facilities that will tend to train 
a considerable number of the youths following industrial callings 
so that they will better comprehend the nature of their work and 
its relation to the whole industrial organization, if we will provide 



2,6 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

better schools that will awaken an intellectual interest in the 
day's task and kindle ambition which will lead men on to better 
work and greater contentment, we shall accomplish a step in the 
development of our educational system which will be of greater 
importance than any other change in educational methods that 
is now under consideration." 

On the whole there is good foundation for labor's contention 
that it has the largest personal and public interest in industrial 
education. It is interested in the nature, amount, and disposition 
of the material product of industrial schools. If the practice of 
manufacturing a commercial product is adopted, it is feared that 
the school product might reduce somewhat the amount of work 
now done for wages. 

In the second place, labor naturally desires to examine with 
care the possible effect of the proposed schools on the labor 
market. It wishes to be quite satisfied that they are not to be 
maintained primarily in the interests of organized and possibly 
unfriendly employers. 

And finally, the American workman is interested in the effect 
of the movement on general education. He has been a stanch 
supporter of the free public-school system for more than a cen- 
tury, and he is inquiring whether the new schools will curtail, 
in any respect, his long-established rights to an educational 
opportunity supposedly equal to any in the land. 



CHAPTER V 
THE DEMAND OF EDUCATORS 

It will be noted that many of the foregoing statements by 
manufacturers and by representatives of organized labor imply 
a certain criticism of the existing public schools. It is certain 
that the schools have been freely criticized, and the situation is 
not without its humor. For a generation the several rather dis- 
tinct units in our school system have been critically examining 
the work of each other. The colleges have said that the quality 
of the preparation given in the secondary schools was steadily 
declining'; the high schools have discovered a like downward 
tendency in the training afforded by the elementary grades ; 
and even the teachers of these grades have felt and said that 
things were far better before the kindergartens were established. 
Meanwhile the public has listened, and it has now apparently 
decided to take us all at the estimate of our particular critic. 
It declares that all branches of the school system are inefficient 
and inadequate, governed by outworn and outgrown traditions 
and incapable of comprehending the conditions and needs of 
the times, and that, as a result, our training is unrelated to real 
life and therefore economically useless. 

Some of this criticism is undoubtedly true in the case of in- 
dividual schools and teachers, but there is a genuine misconcep- 
tion on the part of our critics. No business man who criticizes 
his newly employed elementary- or high-school graduate would 
think of employing, on an important law case, a man fresh 
from a law school, or of putting his life in the hands of a 
physician recently graduated from a medical school. In these 

37 



^8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

cases he recognizes that, unless supplemented by practical 
experience, no scholastic training, however liberal, will furnish 
all the requirements for immediate success. Yet it is exactly , 
this iuinicdiatc success that he expects in his errand boy, clerk, 
or operative. 

As before stated, the chief concern of the educator is in the 
conservation of human power and resources, and it is, after all, 
the ability of the young worker to adapt himself, somewhat 
adequately and in a reasonable time, to the demands of his 
newly found position, which convinces the schoolmaster that his 
pupil's education has been a success. 

Consistent with this ideal of the educator there is heard, 
more and more clearly, a demand from school men themselves, 
that our systems of education give more attention to training 
for vocations or for vocational life. 

This educational demand is comparatively new, but when the 
study of modern pedagogical psychology brought teachers gen- 
erally to see that education was something more than training 
children to memorize and thus accumulate knowledge, the de- 
mand on the part of the educator was ultimately assured. Guided 
by his ideal, and lighted by his more intimate knowledge of the 
human organism, and, on the whole, with very little interest in 
the needs of business or industry, he has come to see the cultural 
value of work and the psychological value of this direct appeal 
to the interest and activities of many of his pupils, particularly 
during the period of early adolescence. 

When it has come to practice, however, the educator has 
recognized the value of industrial education as applying more 
particularly to those boys and girls who are not successful in the 
academic and traditional work of the school. In the beginning 
he was quite willing, and in fact desirous, that this training should 
be differentiated from the so-called " regular work," and that it 
should be given by some other agency than the public school. 



THE DEMAND OF EDUCATORS 39 

He has even maintained that utilitarian work has no rightful 
place in our educational scheme, but this point of view is rapidly 
changing. 

Even now, many educators wish to introduce industrial train- 
ing with as little disturbance to the existing system as possible. 
They advocate a separate secondary school, and, for the lower 
grades, a school between the elementary and high, available for 
special classes. An excellent example of this attitude is afforded 
by the following statement by Dr. Charles W. Eliot, president 
emeritus of Harvard University : 

" Industrial education ought to mean trade schools, and noth- 
ing but trade schools. . . . They [trade schools] involve new 
educational requirements on the part of society, requirements 
to a later age than we have been accustomed to. In most of our 
states fourteen years is the limit of compulsory education. These 
trade schools will require that children be kept under the ob- 
servation of the community up to the seventeenth or eighteenth 
year, and be absolutely required to attend a continuation school, 
for part time at least, if attending no other." 

The initial statement in this quotation must be recognized as 
extreme and dogmatic. It will not receive the indorsement of 
all school men. In fact, school men differ as radically as do the 
representatives of capital and labor regarding the place of indus- 
trial education in the general plan. 

There are those who see in industrial education a cure for 
specific educational ills, as, for example, the evil of retardation 
and the final dropping-out of school of a large majority of our 
pupils at from twelve to fifteen years of age. In writing on this 
question an educator says : "In our educational organization and 
policy we have evidently failed to grasp the full significance of 
a prolonged period of infancy as a factor in the development of 
the individual and the race. . . . The real secret of the loss 
of pupils in the upper elementary grades is to be found in our 



40 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

astounding failure to provide for some of the strongest psycho- 
logical and social needs of many pupils as they approach these 
years. We take boys and girls at a time when their impulses 
are strong for active participation in the vital interests of life, 
and we confine them within narrow schoolroom cells with books 
and pencils as chief and sole means of participation ; we take 
them when their desire for social cooperation is a dominant 
motive, and we require each to work for himself upon tasks 
which, so far as we can see, have little to do with the great 
world outside the school walls ; we take them when their indi- 
vidual differences in capacity, interests, and prospective careers 
are properly matters of growing and vital concern, and we re- 
quire them to pursue a uniform course of study having little 
direct relation to these specific powers, motives, and pros- 
pects. , , . The conclusion clearly indicated is, that adequate 
provision for vocation training, beginning at about the sixth 
year, would tend to prolong the school life of the great mass 
of children." 

But there are a few educators who demand an appropriate 
training for industrial workers, basing their demands on even 
higher grounds. Such a one is Dean Russell of Teachers Col- 
lege, Columbia University. He bases his demand on the con- 
stitutional right of every American citizen to an equality of 
opportunity. He demands democracy in education, that is, the 
right of each individual to the kind and amount of education 
best suited to his nature and his social and economic needs. 
He says : " It is the boast, too, of most Americans that our 
great public-school system provides alike for every boy and girl 
taking advantage of it. This is half true and dangerous, as half 
truths are. The fact is, the American system of education 
grants equality of opportunity to those who can go to college 
and the university. It takes little account of the boy — and 
still less of the girl — who cannot have, or does not wish for, 



THE DEMAND OF EDUCATORS 4 1 

a higher education. Ten milHons of those now in our elemen- 
tary schools, who will be compelled to drop out to earn a liveli- 
hood, will have missed their opportunity. But why ? Do we in 
America have need only of professional men and men of affairs .'' 
Are those who pay the taxes and do the rougher work of life 
to be denied the opportunity for self-improvement ? Are only 
those who can afford to stay in school to reap the advantages of 
an education ? In a word, what are we doing to help the aver- 
age man better to do his life work and better to realize the 
wealth of his inheritance as an American citizen ? The ques- 
tions raise the problem of vocational training for those who 
must begin early to earn their living. It is, in my judgment, the 
greatest problem of the future, and one which we may not longer 
disregard and yet maintain our standing as a nation." 

This statement may not be accepted by all, especially by those 
whose interests center around the higher education. It must be 
admitted that the progress of the movement has been greatly 
retarded by those school men who have insisted that the pecul- 
iar purpose of the school is to provide culture and culture alone. 
Those opposing industrial education on that score apparently 
regard culture as if it were an " ingredient " in some compound, 
always the same, quite forgetting that the culture of yesterday 
may be brutality to-day. They have overlooked the fact that cul- 
ture to-day is not merely something which makes for appro- 
priate behavior in polite society, but is that which gives one an 
emotional appreciation of the meaning of our complex and cos- 
mopolitan life. 

The very natural conservatism of educators has led many of 
them to insist that nothing of vocational purpose excepting 
that which is common to the interests of every child should be 
permitted to enter into the pupil's education before his four- 
teenth birthday. They have asserted that no adequate foundation 
can possibly be laid before that time, and that children, with the 



42 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



advice of their parents, cannot determine their hfe career at so 
early an age. Others have maintained that, while it may be a 
momentous question to decide between two or three different 
lines of educational and industrial work in the school, it is of far 
greater moment to decide to sever all connection with school 
whatsoever, and that upwards of two million two hundred fifty 
thousand children between the ages of twelve and fifteen in 
the United States to-day have decided that question in favor of 
complete separation from the school. 

It may be said, however, of educators generally, that their 
acceptance of the teachings of educational psychology, which has 
led the schools to relax the rigidity of former systems of grading, 
to recognize the need of adapting education to the varying op- 
portunities, abilities, aptitudes, and interests of their pupils, to 
revolt from the fruitless attempt to reach all through the same 
methods, or to force all to progress at the same rate, — that this 
acceptance has assured, on the part of school men, an acqui- 
escence with the movement for industrial education which may 
be classified as a demand. 

It must be confessed that this demand has been less insistent 
than that of the manufacturer, and one is sometimes led to feel 
that the educator has been blind to the people's needs and re- 
miss in his high duty ; that he has opposed where he should 
have helped, and followed where he should have led. Undoubt- 
edly the greatest obstacle to the movement has been the attitude 
of the conservative educator, which has varied from open hostility 
to entire indifference. The opposition is apparently based on 
the belief that there is one best education which all, who possibly 
can, should be induced to obtain, and it is feared that any in- 
fluence which may deflect children from the traditional path, 
will do more harm to our plan of general education than any 
vocational benefit to the individual can possibly offset. Whether 
the ultimate result of this opposition will be beneficial or 



THE DEMAND OF EDUCATORS 43 

detrimental to the cause is a matter of opinion, but the opposi- 
tion itself is a fact. ■ 

It is believed, however, as the question is studied more care- 
fully, that the guiding hand and wise council of the educator 
will be more and more clearly apparent. He has insisted not 
only on equipping the worker for industrial life, but in so equip- 
ping him that he will be able to make that life better worth the 
living. He has stood more than once between capital and labor 
in their demands upon the schools, and he has organized, if he 
has not taught, the most successful of the numerous experi- 
ments in industrial education to be found to-day. 

It is hoped that the descriptive chapters of this volume will 
show that, if there have been conservative educators, there have 
been also progressives, and that their demands have been more 
clearly expressed in actions than in words. They are to be 
found in every section of the country and in all parts of the 
educational system. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE DEMAND OF SOCIAL WORKERS 

No Study of the demand for industrial education is com- 
plete without some reference to the contributions made to the 
movement by philanthropic and charitable institutions and by 
reformatories. 

The purpose of the social workers has always been the amel- 
ioration of the hard conditions of the unfortunate, and their 
efforts have been genuinely altruistic. These efforts have not 
always been marked, however, by scientific methods, and it is 
only within a generation that the emphasis has been shifted 
from the necessity of "giving" to the necessity of "training." 
Furthermore this training has come to mean training for work, 
and the object has been to furnish the means of self-support. 

As a result social workers have been among the first to make 
a real study of the actual conditions under which the less fortu- 
nate of the industrial classes live and labor. The facts have 
been accumulated and systematized, and have been of funda- 
mental importance in the development of social " science." 

The search for pertinent truths has sent the investigators into 
the homes and into the industrial establishments. It has sent 
them to statistics regarding immigration, school attendance, and 
prisons. Complete and accurate information has been demanded. 

Social workers have come to see that their most immediate 
problems concern those who permanently sever their connection 
with the schools at an early age, and many are beginning to feel 
that a complete solution of these problems is to be found only 
by beginning earlier than the post-school period ; that is, that 

44 



THE DEMAND OF SOCIAL WORKERS. 45 

school reform must be made the basis of the particular kind of 
social reform in which the social workers are primarily interested. 
They point out that immigration and the ineffective education 
of thousands of native-born children are swelling the ranks of 
the-unemployed or the irregularly employed, and they insist that 
there is lack of real economy in refusing a more appropriate 
education to those who are bound to become wage earners in 
their early teens. 

The following quotations are indicative of the opinions and 
attitude of the officials of reformatories and prisons, as well as 
of philanthropic social workers, regarding the need of indus- 
trial training. 

" Industrial training, by engaging convicts in some useful 
industry, is the only way to make them obedient and tractable 
while in prison, and industrious and useful members of society 
when they are released. It is necessary that trades should be 
taught and practiced in the same manner as they are practiced 
in the world, that the education and trade training should fit 
men, when they come out, to support themselves in the way the 
world requires, as among the causes of crime the proximate one 
is very often the lack of ability for self-support. ..." 

"In many penal institutions labor is the essential element in 
the reform training of the individual, and through it he becomes 
accustomed to the habits of industry, proficient in the use of tools, 
and is made to feel that he has ability within himself for the earn- 
ing of an honest livelihood. The plan that is being used in some 
institutions, of allowing prisoners to look forward to the certainty 
of being employed upon a better grade of work as the reward 
of industry, acquired proficiency, and good conduct, is certain to 
lead to results of greatest benefit to the prisoner, the institution, 
and the state. The prisoner's ambition and interest are aroused, 
and he is encouraged to pursue a course which should end in 
his acquiring a useful trade. Society at large is benefited by 



46 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

anything that tends to better the condition of the prisoner in 
the way of improving his opportunities of earning an honest 
hvelihood after his release." 

"The importance of imparting to prisoners the complete 
knowledge of a trade, as it lies in the minds of those most com- 
petent to form and pronounce an opinion, may be inferred from 
the fact that, with absolute unanimity, prison ofificers declare it 
to be their judgment that the reformation of the prisoner would 
be promoted by giving greater prominence to this object ; and 
they further declare it as their opinion that reformation genuine 
and permanent, whatever the first cost of it may be, is in the 
long run the cheapest and most profitable and will prove the 
greatest ultimate pecuniary gain to the state." ^ 

" In our judgment the greatest good that can be accomplished 
in our reformatory institutions lies in a more thorough course in 
the school of letters, in military drill, and in manual-training 
and trades schools, not altogether because they give us a people 
more handy and practical for domestic life and better skilled in 
trades, but because they will give us citizens with an entirely 
different intellectual basis." 

'" Shop work systematically carried out engenders a habit of 
industry and observation that cannot be acquired in any other 
way. It gives to the inmate a knowledge of the difference be- 
tween accuracy and vagueness, and an insight into the complexity 
of everyday life, which, once wrought into the mind, remains 
there as a lifelong possession. Work in the shop will confer upon 
the inmate precision ; for under a competent instructor he must 
do the work that is laid out, definitely right or definitely wrong." 

" Hence we believe that the greatest results from a scientific 
standpoint in the reformation of delinquents, and the greatest 

1 From the Report of the United States Industrial Commission on Prison 
Labor, 1900, Vol. III. The date is significant. The educational movement did 
not take definite shape before 1905 or 1906. 



THE DEMAND OF SOCIAL WORKERS 47 

good that can come to the younger generation, will be the estab- 
lishing of more practical institutions of learning, known as 
manual-training and trades schools, where practical instruction 
of everyday life can be had. More practice and less theory is 
the need of the hour." ^ 

" I am inclined to the opinion that so far as bettering the con- 
dition of the boys who come under the care of this institution is 
concerned, an extension of the shop work and trades would be 
better than a larger farm, for the reason that very few of them 
will follow farming after they pass out of the school [Iowa Boys' 
Industrial School]. Ninety per cent of the boys come from towns 
and cities, and they will go back to their homes and follow some 
trade or avocation which will permit them to live in a town or 
city. They do not take as kindly to farming while in school as 
they do to the shops." ^ 

" The trade schools of the Philadelphia House of Refuge have 
reached the point of affording for the larger boys useful and skill- 
ful labor which enables them to readily get mechanical employ- 
ment after they leave the house, at satisfactory wages ; their 
knowledge of the use of tools makes them independent, and they 
perform most of the mechanical work about the buildings. . . ." 

The Illinois Manual Training Farm School does not receive 
the worst delinquents, but rather those bordering on that stage. 
So successful do they believe their division of work between 
school and farm and shops to be, that the president of the board, 
Mr. Butler, expresses himself thus : " The work in the school 
is now made almost as interesting as the work in the shops. 
Possibly some day the public schools of Chicago will divide 
their school hours as we now divide ours at Glenwood, one 
half of the time being given to books and the other half to 
work in the shops." 

1 W. H. Whittaker, Jeffersonville, Indiana, National Prison Association, 
1906. 2 Report of the Iowa Board of Control, 1903, p. 710. 



48 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Again, speaking of the material witli whicli they have to deal : 
" The boy in the city whose mechanical genius makes it possible 
for him to teach his fellows how to pick a lock, is just the 
material needed for our manual-training school. After he has 
worked for a week in the machine shop of this building he will 
look upon lock picking as something beneath his notice. . . . 
This boy is not bad. He is just a boy, and because he is a boy 
he must have something to do." 

Without waiting for reform within the schools, social workers 
have secured the establishment of association schools and 
classes, and the introduction of industrial work into prisons 
and reform schools, as the surest way of creating a better social 
and moral life. 

One of the early philanthropic institutions established to give 
especial attention to industrial education was the North Bennet 
Street Industrial School of Boston. For many years it has con- 
ducted classes, both in connection with and independent of the 
public schools, which have been of great value to those who 
were studying the problem of the education of the masses. 
During the past four years the director, Mr. Alvin E. Dodd, 
in cooperation with the public-school authorities, has worked 
out in detail a most interesting and successful course of study 
for grades seven and eight. Perhaps no school in the country, 
either public or private, has done more to demonstrate the pos- 
sibility of making the last two years of the elementary school 
vocationally valuable to the boys and girls who go early into 
industrial occupations. 

Among the best industrial schools in the East are those 
conducted by the Y.M.C.A. It is worthy of note that these 
schools frequently receive in tuition from the pupils a sum 
equal to that expended by the association for salaries of in- 
structors. This would seem to indicate a demand on the part 
of the workmen themselves. 



THE DEMAND OF SOCIAL WORKERS 49 

Instruction is given in these classes in every conceivable 
branch of industrial work, and educators have many lessons to 
learn from these efforts. 

One of America's first citizens once said that if one wished to 
attend the best schools in the country he must be an Indian or 
a negro. While this statement is extravagant, all must admit 
the remarkable and illuminating results, both educational and 
social, achieved by the Hampton Normal and Agricultural In- 
stitute of Virginia and the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial 
Institute of Alabama, to which this remark referred. 

The above instances exemplify a demand for industrial edu- 
cation, a demand made by men and women who have no special 
interest in industry or in educational institutions as such, but 
who urge this training as a cure for the social evils following in 
the wake of unemployed ignorance. Perhaps social workers have 
been clearer in their vision of the end to be accomplished than 
educators, and their demands have been freer from prejudice and 
criticism than those of capital and labor. There is, in the fol- 
lowing quotation from the social worker, guidance for the man- 
ufacturers, the labor unions, and the educators if they will but 
take its broad lesson seriously to heart. 

"In promoting public industrial education the social worker 
must devote himself in a painstaking way to the sympathetic 
study of the point of view of organized workmen as well as of 
progressive employers with regard to the matter. The trade- 
unionist's objection that the labor market is always in danger of 
being flooded is not to be ignored. In any case the decision as 
to the direction in which pupils shall be trained must be made 
in full knowledge of the labor market. The skilled journey- 
man's contention that there must, in any case, be a period of 
special shop apprenticeship is perfectly sound and holds just as 
surely for the craft of the mechanic or artisan as for that of the 
doctor or lawyer. On the other hand, the trade-unionist must be 



50 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

led to see that the trade school is simply another sort of machine, 
which, though from a short-range point of view threatening to 
the workmen's wage standard, in the long run can only enhance 
the interest of all concerned by stimulating both production and 
consumption through raising the whole standard of intelligence 
and capacity. It is inconceivable that, as a class, school-trained 
workmen would not be even more jealous than others of all 
unreasonable encroachments upon their wage standard, and that 
they should not apply their additional training to the develop- 
ment of even more effective forms of labor organization than 
now exist. In any movement for the development of industrial 
education, workingmen should not only be consulted, but should 
be represented in the administration as experts in many of the 
important detailed matters affecting the progress of such in- 
struction. The truth is that industrial education is coming. 
Those who do not put themselves in line to reap its advantages 
may even have some of its force turned against them." ^ 

As Mr. Woods affirms, industrial education is coming, and 
from out the turmoil of conflicting demands the social factor is 
gradually emerging, and it is the only factor on which all can be 
brought together in essential unity of purpose. It is becoming 
clear that children must be fitted for the industries to the satis- 
faction of reasonable employers, but they must be so fitted that 
their entry into the industries will be made as happily as pos- 
sible, and with the hope and prospect of advancement and of 
ultimate success. 

This will be done, not by overriding the opinions of labor 
unions regarding the labor market on one hand, or, on the other, 
by refusing to give training to children except on labor's terms, 
but by securing the cooperation of labor in the radical improve- 
ment of educational facilities and thus in the betterment of in- 
dustrial conditions for all. 

1 Robert A. Woods, Charities, Vol. XIX, p. S44. 



THE DEMAND OF SOCIAL WORKERS 51 

The advancement of the compulsory school age, when it comes, 
will be accompanied by such an enlargement of opportunities 
within the school that every child will be materially benefited 
by the added time devoted to school work. 

While this modification of the public schools will result in 
especial benefit to the future industrial worker, it will be made 
without in the least affecting the opportunities now afforded for 
the most liberal education. 

In all educational work there will be even greater reliance on 
the teachings of psychology, but these teachings will be inter- 
preted into terms of method and organization by social as well 
as by individual psychology. 

All this can be effected only by modifying some of our tradi- 
tional educational ideals, and these modifications will be discussed 
in the following chapter. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE REVISION OF EDUCATIONAL IDEALS INVOLVED 
IN THE MOVEMENT FOR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 

In the foregoing chapters we attempted to analyze what seemed 
to be an ahnost universal demand for industrial education, and 
found that it could be attributed to four rather distinct causes : 
the desire of manufacturers to secure more efficient workmen 
without increasing the cost of production ; the desire of organized 
workmen to prevent the flooding of the labor market with cheap 
and partially trained labor, and, at the same time, to secure for 
themselves and their children an education enabling them to re- 
sist exploitation ; the desire of the educators to develop a larger 
percentage of the children intrusted to the care of the schools to 
a point more nearly commensurate with their 'several native and 
peculiar abilities ; and the desire of organized society, working 
for social betterment, to eliminate one of the most potent causes 
of crime and unhappiness, namely unemployed ignorance. 

Each of the forces has attempted to remedy, in its own pe- 
culiar way, the evil which it has detected. Manufacturers have 
conducted schools of their own, and they have attempted to 
secure municipal, state, and national legislation for the estab- 
lishment and maintenance of public industrial schools. Labor 
organizations, partly as a countermove, have likewise sought 
to influence legislation, and they have also established schools 
under their auspices. Educators have sought to provide an ade- 
quate training for all pupils by enriching the curriculum and by 
organizing schools which apparently differ widely from the 
established types. Philanthropic and charitable societies have 

52 



THE REVISION OF EDUCATIONAL IDEALS 



53 



inaugurated countless clubs, classes, and schools for providing 
one or another form of manual or industrial work, and have 
secured its introduction into penal institutions, reformatories, 
homes, and hospitals. 

All of these forces, working together or working separately, 
have brought about during the last generation a radical change 
in educational ideals. Great as these changes have been, there is 
reason to believe that still greater modifications are immediately 
before us, and that, when thrown into their proper perspective, 
these changes will be seen to be in direct line with educational 
reform since the Middle Ages. The doctrines of Rabelais, Bacon, 
Montaigne, Locke, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, interpreted by the 
demands of Luther, Comenius, and Horace Mann for universal 
education, and forced into prominence by the existing economic 
conditions of to-day, show that the present movement was nat- 
ural and inevitable. 

Our new ideal requires, first of all, a more accurate adjust- 
ment of education to individual needs and opportunities. 

Those who were formerly looked upon as the natural and the 
sole rulers have been forced, by the growing consciousness of 
the masses of mankind, to yield something of their power. They 
have come by necessity to acquire an interest in and respect for 
the "artificers and workmasters." More, they must have accurate 
knowledge of them, — their labors, aspirations, and problems. 
This indicates the bed rock of the newest ideal of education, 
— the recognition by the few, of the needs and the rights of 
the many in matters of education as well as in politics and re- 
ligion. That the power should be yielded somewhat reluctantly 
is only to be expected. 

Since our new ideal will require adjustment to individual needs,' 
a careful study of the conditions of children, both in school and 
in industry, must be made. Much, it is true, has already been 
done in the way of investigation, but it is astonishing to see how 



54 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

slightly the information has as yet affected action. As the result 
of investigations begun nearly a decade since, the attention of 
educators generally has been called to the fact that approximately 
85 per cent of the children entering the public schools of the 
United States, leave between the ages of twelve and fifteen, and 
that a large number of these have not completed the elementary- 
school course. 

Not only is this true in the cities with their large foreign popu- 
lation, but it is also the case in rural districts, peculiarly so with 
the boys. Dr. Andrew S. Draper, commissioner of education 
for the state of New York, states that "there is a larger per- 
centage of illiterate children of native-born than of foreign-born 
parents in the state of New York." Five years ago this waste 
by leakage from our schools was prominently brought to our at- 
tention, yet surprisingly litde has been done to stop it by any other 
method than to offer more diversified courses in high schools. 

High schools, however, no matter how diversified the courses 
offered may be, so long as they require the completion of the 
grammar-school course as a condition of entrance, obviously 
cannot reach or greatly influence the majority of the boys and 
girls who refuse or who are unable to finish the elementary- 
school work. 

Our revised ideal will thus involve a shifting of emphasis 
from secondary to elementary education. 

Ex-President Roosevelt says : " The exceptional individual, 
of the highest culture and most efficient training possible, is an 
important asset for the state. He should be encouraged and his 
development promoted, but this should not be done at the ex- 
pense of the other individuals who can do their work best on 
the farm and in the workshop ; it is for the benefit of these 
individuals that our school system should be primarily shaped." 

This, of course, does not mean any lessening of our interest 
in the higher education, but merely that the education given in 



THE REVISION OF EDUCATIONAL IDEALS 55 

the first eight grades shall not be planned as if it were simply 
preparatory for the high school. It must be planned mainly for 
those who will fill the ranks of the industrial army. 

America is the land of promise and should undoubtedly con- 
tinue to foster the idea that there is " room at the top " ; but it 
is time that we thought seriously about the educational rights of 
those who must fall short of the top, — who, perhaps, must stay 
near the bottom. Our scheme of education is planned for the 
few rather than the many. It is a selective process, and the ma- 
chinery and methods are adapted to those who " go to the top." 

If children began school at the age of six and progressed 
regularly from grade to grade, compulsory school attendance till 
the fourteenth birthday would assure to all the completion of 
the elementary-school course. This is not, however, the case ; 
and in cities where statistics are available, the figures show that 
the greatest loss of children from the school is in passing from 
the fifth to the sixth, or the sixth to the seventh grade, and that 
large numbers of children, on leaving school at fourteen years, 
have not passed beyond the fourth grade. 

Our new ideal would thus seem to require a careful revision 
of the elementary school : first, to secure a more reasonable pro- 
gression from grade to grade by all, through the right kind of 
work, teachers, and conditions ; and second, to provide an educa- 
tion that will make it worth while for all to remain in school a 
little longer, and one which not only is worth while, but one 
which will appeal to the children and their parents as being so. 

The present form of the elementary school has come down to us 
from the time when the home and the farm provided the children 
with ample opportunity for vocational experience, through con- 
crete, creative work under natural conditions. Our reorganized 
elementary school will seek to substitute other conditions, just 
as real, which will provide for the actual participation of the chil- 
dren in productive activity. The traditional manual training 



56 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

attempted to do this, but failed, so far as the awakening of in- 
dustrial interest is concerned, because it substituted artificial 
needs for real ones, and then sought to administer to those needs 
through tool work, which was generally unrelated and often 
inappropriate. 

Our revised ideal will require the adoption of a more flexible 
school organization, — one which will provide for an earlier dif- 
ferentiation than is now afforded by the division into elementary 
schools of eight, and secondary schools of four, years. It will re- 
quire that differentiation be made possible at the sixth or seventh 
grade, or when the child is twelve or thirteen years old. 

It is frequently contended that this is too early in life for a 
boy to decide for himself, or for his parents to decide for him, 
that he will enter upon an industrial course or a commercial 
course, but the fact remains that the majority of our boys and 
girls are deciding at about this age to leave school altogether 
and go to work. Would they not run less risk of making a mis- 
take were they to select one of the vocational schools established, 
or to be established, for children of elementary grade } 

This earlier differentiation, by the way, is now possible in 
some cities for boys who are going to college. Such are admitted 
to the preparatory school at the sixth grade. This is because 
those who usually make courses of study and decide questions of 
school organization are college men. As such they appreciate the 
value of an appropriate training for the college courses, and insist 
on it, even though the boy must omit the study of music, drawing, 
design, and manual training. May it not be equally advisable for 
the boy who is to have an education for industrial life, to have 
an early preparation in drawing, applied geometry, design, and 
constructive work, even though he must omit some of the more 
formal work of our traditional courses, as, for example, technical 
grammar and demonstrative geometry ? Differentiation at the 
sixth grade will give both of the above types an equal opportunity. 



THE REVISION OF EDUCATIONAL IDEALS 57 

While the need of remodeling the elementary school is the 
greatest, our new ideal will require new afid varying high or sec- 
ondary schools, or differentiated departments in existing high 
schools. These new secondary schools or departments will be 
intensively vocational in purpose, and it is expressly intended 
that they shall not lead to higher schools excepting those which 
are also distinctly vocational, but shall lead directly to business 
and industry. 

Educators are being warned not to train boys away from the 
farm and the shop. This the schools have undoubtedly done to 
some extent. Our revised ideal will require that we educate the 
boy for work on the farm and in the shop, but that we shall so 
educate him that he will make a better farmer and will develop 
a richer farm life, or will demand a better shop and conditions 
more favorable to progress and to a reasonable enjoyment of his 
work and his leisure. 

The whole tendency of industrial development during the past 
two hundred years has been to concentrate in the hands of fewer 
and fewer men the vianagentent and direction of industry, until, 
while the theoretical possibility of rising out of the ranks to be a 
captain of industry still exists for each individual, the probability 
that a considerable number will do so is remote, and for the 
vast majority we must admit that it is an absolute impossibility. 

The problem then is to provide such an education as will make 
clear to this majority the meaning and the joy of work and of 
study. The time devoted to education in the elementary and 
secondary schools is too short to impart all necessary knowledge, 
but it may not be too short to develop the desire for knowledge 
and skill, and the habits of study and of industiy. 

How can this be accomplished } The purpose of the lower 
schools has been and must remain broadly cultural. The revised 
ideal will set the task of ascertaining what part vocational activ- 
ities — agricultural, commercial, and industrial — can contribute 



58 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

to this culture, by making the vocational work central, and by 
grouping around it and articulating with it the book or study 
work, thus providing a new incentive to study and a new mean- 
ing to knowledge and art. 

The direction and management of the schools will also need 
modification. Instead of insisting that educational results ob- 
tained in these schools be measured only by traditional educa- 
tional standards and methods, our revised ideal will require that 
the vocational schools submit their product to the tests applied by 
business and industry. The schools will therefore accept the 
assistance and the advice of business men and manufacturers ; 
they will not, however, turn over the management, and especially 
the instruction, to commercial interests, but will clearly recognize 
the need and value of cooperating with them. The advisory 
committee will play an important part in the development of the 
new schools. 

Another ideal which will require revision is that regarding the 
qualification of the teachers of industrial subjects. When manual 
training was first introduced into the public-school system, the 
demand for teachers was much greater than the supply. There 
were many mechanics, young men of good habits, with a com- 
mon-school education or more, and a liberal training in some 
particular trade. These men, however, were not desired as 
teachers. At first it might appear that they were passed by be- 
cause of their lack of professional pedagogical training. This 
cannot have been the case, for, at the same time, men who 
had merely a traditional college education were given positions 
to teach academic subjects in high schools although they also 
lacked the teacher's professional training. Neither had any 
knowledge of educational psychology, or of the practices which 
those principles had demonstrated to be effective in the teaching 
of children. Experience would indicate that college graduates 
show no more willingness or ability to follow these teachings 



THE REVISION OF EDUCATIONAL IDEALS 59 

than do the instructors in industrial and commercial branches, 
who have succeeded, in spite of restrictions, in gaining entrance 
to the educational profession. 

The fact is, that educational authorities very early set up 
scholastic requirements for the teachers of the new subjects. 
Before a man could teach machine-shop work in a high school 
he had to pass an examination in English and American literature, 
algebra, demonstrative geometry, a foreign language, etc., etc. 
The result was that in time the work fell into the hands of men 
who were trained in the traditional school subjects rather than in 
the practical work which they were to teach. They knew a 
foreign language, imperfectly, but they knew little or nothing of 
the universal language, drawing. They knew demonstrative 
geometry, but little descriptive or applied geometry. They knew 
something of algebra, but they never, by any possible chance, 
made use of it in the shop, and were, of course, entirely un- 
familiar with shop formulae. To-day the manual-training work 
generally is condemned by the " public," the manufacturers, and 
the labor leaders, as being absolutely useless as industrial train- 
ing, and the teachers as being incapable of conducting or of 
understanding the purpose of real industrial schools. While 
much of the criticism is unjust the lesson is evident. Our 
revised ideal will permit us to employ as teachers men and 
women who have intelligence equal to that of the ordinary 
teacher, and a general education which enables them to handle 
effectively the ordinary means of expression, oral, written, and 
graphic ; a liberal education, including experience, in their spe- 
cialty ; and a working knowledge of the principles and practices 
of teaching. 

Our revised ideal will require constant opportunity for varied, 
hopeful, and extensive experimentation, with inspiration drawn 
not from the traditions of the past but from the needs of real 
children who are preparing for the struggle with present-day 



6o EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

conditions. Investigations we have had in abundance, — investi- 
gations of conditions on this and the other side of the water. 
Experiments are mucJi more necessary to-day. One example is 
more fruitful than a thousand arguments. 

Several worthy examples have already been set by individual 
schools or school systems, and some of the more instructive of 
these will be described or noted in later chapters. In this con- 
nection, however, may be mentioned the action of the New York 
State Education Department, which invites such experimentation. 

In a syllabus issued in the summer of 1910 the department 
recommended that a six-year elementary course be put into effect 
the following September. The following statement was made : 

In determining the work of the elementary schools a six-year course has 
been prepared. The course is general in character and adapted to all chil- 
dren until that period of their development when they manifest different 
interests, mental powers, and tastes, which is usually at the age of twelve. 

This six-year course is followed by an intermediate course of two years, 
covering the usual seventh and eighth grades and rounding out the elemen- 
tary course. In this two-year course the work begins to differentiate. Work 
is planned which leads to the long-established high-school courses, to com- 
mercial courses, and to industrial courses. Certain work previously done 
in the high-school course has been brought down into this two-year course 
to economize the pupils' time, to reduce the pressure and strain under which 
high-school students have labored during their first years in high schools, 
and to interest pupils in work which will induce them to remain in school 
for a greater number of years. 

The new ideal will require the schools to cooperate both with 
the parent and with the employer in assisting the child or youth 
at that most important and trying time in his life when he passes 
from the school to the more exacting responsibilities and the 
longer hours of work. Formerly the boy entered into the new 
experiences of his industrial life with his hand, so to speak, in 
the hand of his father. This transition is now commonly made 
by the boy alone. It is, furthermore, far more difficult now than 
then, because it is a transition from all school and play to all 



THE REVISION OF EDUCATIONAL IDEALS 6 1 

work, — from a perfectly familiar environment to one that is 
completely unknown. The public, represented by the school, 
should be intensely interested in the boy or the girl at this critical 
period, and should retain a reasonable responsibility for his 
control and guidance. 

To summarize : 

Our ideal will secure a more accurate adjustment of educa- 
tional facilities to individual needs and capacities. 

It will require the centering of interest on the education of 
the 85 per cent of our children, with the consequent enlargement 
of our regard for the elementary school. 

It will demand greater flexibility and more definite purpose in 
courses of study and school organization. 

It will show the wisdom of a complete differentiation of 
purpose at an earlier age than is now commonly possible. 

It will demand a new type of secondary school. 

It will demand that our inspiration be drawn from the study 
of existing conditions, and that we discover, by experimentation, 
and emphasise the culture which is to be derived from common 
work well done. 

It will admit to the teaching force men and women who are 
thoroughly competent to give the needed instruction, and who 
have an accurate and practical knowledge of, and an interest in, 
the particular vocation for which the school or class is training 
its pupils. 

It will compel us to seek the cooperation of all interested in 
the child's welfare, — parent, teacher, and employer, — to the 
end that he may make a successful and happy entry into his 
vocational life. 

Finally, this revision of ideals does not require that we relin- 
quish aught of the high purpose which has always dominated 
American educational institutions, — the desire to promote broad 
culture, a sensitiveness to the refining influences of all that is 



62 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

best in literature, art, science, technology, life, in so far as our 
experiences bring us into contact with these influences. It does 
not mean that we should reduce our effort to provide for the few 
the very closest and most complete contact with any or all of 
these influences. It does not ask that we overlook or minimize 
the immense value, to the many, of this liberal education of the 
few, but may it not be true that the most important service 
education can render the country at the present time is to teach 
workers to work, biit to work in such a way and with such a 
comprehension of what work means, with such a knowledge of 
the conditions under which work is commonly done, and with 
such an appreciation of the value and purpose of leisure, that the 
very work may be made the means of culture to the worker, 
bringing to him something of the development which work 
brought to the worker when craftsmanship was at its best and 
the work became art and the worker an artist ? 

In whatever part of the large field his main interests may lie, 
no student of education who has clear sight can fail to recognize 
the fundamental importance of the proposition to utilize, in the 
education of an industrial people, the cultural value of work. 



CHAPTER VIII 
A PLAN FOR IMMEDIATE REORGANIZATION 

Complete and adequate reorganization of public-school systems 
in accordance with new ideals will require time and wise experi- 
mentation, and concrete examples will furnish the most convinc- 
ing arguments. At the same time much benefit may result 
from the formulation of comprehensive plans based on the 
present organization of our schools, but made large enough to 
include the education of all the children in a given community. 
It is the purpose of this chapter to outline a tentative plan 
suitable for the schools of urban and especially of industrial 
communities. Only the most prominent and general character- 
istics can be given, as it is fundamentally important that all 
details be determined by local conditions. 

In the first place the plan must eliminate all preventable 
retardation in the grades. Already progress in this direction has 
been made by the somewhat common establishment of classes 
for mental defectives, of disciplinary classes for those who are 
especially unruly, and of ungraded classes for those who are 
temporarily under grade in some studies. But it will require 
measures more inclusive and far-reaching than these to secure the 
reasonable development of each individual in the first six grades. 
Among possible improvements are smaller classes, shorter terms 
and more frequent promotions, and the grading of the pupil in 
each subject or in groups of subjects, thus securing his progress 
where progress is possible, even if he fails to advance in one 
or another study. Throughout this period there should be pos- 
sible a wide variety in methods of instruction to suit individual 

63 



64 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

characteristics, but an absolute unity of purpose, namely, to 
give each pupil an opportunity of developing in every possible 
direction. The added expense of such a plan is admitted, but it 
is reasonable to believe that it would be more economical than 
the present -wasteful arrangement, which admittedly fails with 
50 per cent of the pupils in the public schools. At the end of 
the sixth grade, and at intervals thereafter, provision should be 
made for differentiation of purpose as well as of method. How 
minutely the school work must be subdivided it is impossible to 
say, but it is apparent that it must follow the tendency of the 
times toward specialization, and, furthermore, that there are four 
points at which this differentiation of purpose will be most effec- 
tive. These are at the close of the sixth and eighth grades of 
the elementary school, and of the second and fourth years of the 
present high-school period. 

Let us examine briefly the opportunities which should be 
offered at each of these points. 

At the close of the sixth year those children who are defi- 
nitely planning to leave school at the end of the eighth grade or 
earlier should be permitted but wot fore ed to enter upon a course 
of study arranged with that fact clearly in mind. This course 
should be strongly inHuenced by the local vocational possibilities 
open to children at an early age. It is sometimes designated as 
" pre vocational." It should aim not primarily to fit the children 
for these positions, which are probably undesirable, but to give 
them such an understanding of the conditions as would induce 
them to remain longer in school whenever possible. Failing this, 
the child is better able to cope with the unfortunate conditions 
and to work through them to something better. It should be 
noted that this course serves a double purpose, — to deter those 
who would, and to assist those who must, leave school at fourteen 
or fifteen years. The course should have the further purpose of 
impressing the pupils with the value of trade-school training 






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66 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

and of interesting them in continuation-school opportunities, 
either day or evening, where such exist. There is a possibiHty 
that the early worker may become a permanent student, a thing 
strongly to be desired. 

While these pupils have entered upon the differentiated 
seventh-grade course with the idea of terminating their studies 
at the end of the eighth grade, possibility of changing their plans 
and of continuing their school work beyond this point should 
not be closed to them. The possibilities offered on completing 
the eighth grade should be entrance to a trade school or to a 
vocational course in the high school. Pupils should not expect 
to enter upon the classical high-school course with the same 
chances of success as those who did not differentiate their work 
at the seventh grade. 

Let us now examine the paths open to the pupils planning to 
go beyond the eighth grade. 

All such would continue through grades seven and eight with 
effective preparation for the high school. Arriving at the first year 
of the high school the ways divide again very much the same as 
in grade seven. Those planning to remain two years or less may 
elect a specific vocational course, at the end of which they may 
(i) go to work, (2) decide to continue with intensive vocational 
work in the high school for one or two additional years, or (3) 
enter the trade school, to which later reference will be made. 

The remainder of the pupils, those expecting to graduate 
from the high school, whether they enter college or not, have a 
choice between several high-school courses, — classical, com- 
mercial, agricultural, or technical (including domestic science 
and art). 

Finally, those who decide at the beginning of the third year of 
the high school to terminate their studies on graduation will have 
open to them not only the college preparatory course and the 
general high-school course, but optional intensive vocational 



A PLAN FOR IMMEDIATE REORGANIZATION 67 

courses. They should not expect to enter on existing college 
courses from the vocational classes. 

A qualifying statement should be made, and the importance 
of this fact is great. At the place of branching, some of the 
subjects of instruction may easily be common to the curricula 
of both or of all branches made at that point. This will serve 
both a social and an educational end, since it reduces segrega- 
tion to the minimum and removes something of the irrevoca- 
bility of the decision. 

We have examined the plan as to its horizontal stratification. 
A clearer meaning of its import may be gained from considering 
one or more of its vertical divisions. 

At the foundation, and common to all divisions, lies a six 
years' training of the most scientific and modern character, with 
every possible effort devoted to meeting the needs of each indi- 
vidual edjicationally, in the literal meaning of the word. Here 
no thought of economic efficiency need enter to modify any 
method shown to be successful in awakening real interest and 
intellectual effort on the part of the children. No retarded child 
should be considered stupid or lazy simply because he is "differ- 
ent" from the imaginary average. In fact, he should not be 
retarded but should be subjected to such stimuli as will excite his 
interest and impel effort. It is probable that few children will be 
found wholly unresponsive to the various methods which modern 
educational science has demonstrated to be effective. 

From this point the pupils may be divided into four rather 
distinct groups : (i) those going to college ; (2) those planning 
to complete the high-school course ; (3) those planning to take 
only the two-year vocational course in the high school ; (4) those 
expecting to terminate their schooling at the end of the elemen- 
tary course. 

Let us examine the main subdivisions of the most extensive 
and liberal training, namely, that terminating in the professional 



68 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

schools. This may be divided horizontally between (i) a period 
devoted to broad general training, corresponding to the elemen- 
tary grades and the first two years of the high school ; (2) a shorter 
period, devoted to laying the groundwork of the specialty, which 
corresponds to the later high-school and the early college years, 
in which electives enable a student to select the group of sub- 
jects which will be the best foundation for any given profes- 
sion, as, for example, the selection of history, language, political 
science, etc., for prospective students in the law school ; and (3) 
the intensive and relatively narrow specialization in the chosen 
profession. This last period is believed to be of prime impor- 
tance for the professional man. It is practically impossible for 
any considerable number to secure satisfactory entrance to the 
professions without it. 

The plan which we have outlined will make it possible to give 
to the students in all of the four divisions something analogous 
to this complete training for the professions. Here the time 
element must be taken into account. After it is learned zvhat 
amowit of time the student has at his disposal it should then be 
proportionately divided between these three general subdivisions 
found to be so essential to the professional man : first, the 
broad general training ; second, a preparation in the group of 
studies which will form the best groundwork for his specialty ; 
third, a brief period of intensive specialization which will pre- 
pare him for a successful entry upon his chosen vocation. 

The fact cannot be too strongly emphasized that entry upon 
a vocation without special training of some kind is becoming 
more and more difficult, and the attempt to make such an entry 
without this special training, and without guidance and advice, 
is attended with difficulties and grave dangers which the schools 
have too long ignored. 

While it is believed that the plan outlined would be broad 
enough, if adequately carried out, to embrace the two following 



A PLAN FOR IMMEDIATE REORGANIZATION 69 

types of schools, it is certain that under present conditions 
there is a demand for the intermediate industrial school and 
for the trade school. 

Until retardation has been effectually prevented or greatly 
reduced, there is need of courses similar to the differentiated 
seventh- and eighth-grade courses, but open to any boy or girl 
thirteen years of age or over who is in or below the sixth 
grade. These are sometimes called separate or intermediate 
industrial schools. 

In addition, it is probable that another type is needed, and 
this might be called a trade school. There are few public trade 
schools in the country, but they fill a distinct place. Trade schools 
should be open to boys and girls of sixteen years of age, should 
emphasize the development of skill, and should lead very directly 
to some particular trade. 

In certain localities part-time cooperative courses are the most 
effective means of giving a thorough industrial training. As 
mentioned in a former chapter, they have their peculiar advan- 
tages and disadvantages, but they should be promoted wherever 
conditions are favorable both to the cause of labor and the cause 
of education. 

Continuation schools, both day and evening, are also to be 
desired, the former for apprentices and the latter for adults. 

These in no way affect our plan except that they furnish at 
all points another educational opportunity for those entering 
upon their industrial life. They do not obviate the necessity for 
any part of the complete scheme. 

Finally, it is not expected that the child will be left to find 
his own way in the maze which this plan spreads out before him. 
Vocational guidance is a concomitant of vocational education. 
By a skillful combination of the wisdom, interest, and experience 
of the parent, teacher, and employer it is possible to base such 
guidance upon principles approaching a science. 



70 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

This involves, first, the giving of imformation about vocations 
in general and about the particular opportunities for work in the 
immediate vicinity, and also about the opportunities afforded 
by the several schools for giving adequate training for these 
positions. This will be based on information carefully selected 
and collated and made available for intelligent use. Such infor- 
mation might be so arranged as to show at a glance just what 
was involved in the preparation for a given vocation in terms of 
years, money, and effort, and what characteristics were needed in 
the individual for success therein. 

Next comes assistance in placing the pupil when the tran- 
sition from school to work must be made. At this time he 
needs to be shown the advisability of taking a position suited 
to his tastes and his peculiar qualifications, and one which of- 
fers an opportunity for advancement, even though at the outset 
it may not be so attractive as some other which pays a larger 
initial wage. 

And finally, the young worker should receive sympathetic 
supervision and counseling subsequent to his entry into his new 
work. This is a most trying time for many a boy and girl, and 
should be given most careful attention. 

There is need for specially trained assistants in all this work. 

It will almost certainly be contended by some that all this 
involves the formation of plans by parents and children at a 
much earlier age than is possible or desirable. It should be 
noted that this is merely an opinion, and that there is little 
or no available material either to refute or to substantiate it. 
A preliminary investigation is now being made which may 
throw some light on the question. As this book goes to press 
the returns have not been so thoroughly studied as to warrant 
a definite statement, but the plan of investigation and the im- 
pressions received from information thus far available may be 
of interest. 



A PLAN FOR IMMEDIATE REORGANIZATION 71 

The following letter and questions have been submitted to 
schools in Denver, Colorado ; Springfield, Illinois ; Cincinnati 
and Youngstown, Ohio ; Indianapolis, Indiana ; Dandridge, 
Tennessee ; and Chicago, Illinois. 

(Sent to superintendents or school principals) 

THE UNIVERSITY 
OF CHICAGO 

Dear Sir: 

We are making an investigation, the purpose of which is to determine 
whether any considerable number of parents have formed definite plans for 
the future education of their children by the time the child has reached his 
thirteenth year, and, further, to learn whether parents are willing to divulge 
such plans and to cooperate with the schools in selecting the best studies 
consistent with them. 

The schools have very generally proceeded on the assumption that these 
facts could not be ascertained in enough cases to warrant any differentiation 
in courses of study based on such information. Even if the investigation 
does nothing more than to confirm this belief, it will be worth the making, 
but it is hoped that something much more positive will result. 

[Signed] 

(Blank given to teachers for distribution) 

QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED OF PARENTS OF ALL CHILDREN 
BETWEEN TWELVE AND THIRTEEN YEARS OF AGE 

1. How much longer are you planning to send your-j , , HO school ? 
(Mark answer with an x.) 

Till-j , !>is fourteen years of age. 

TilH , MS sixteen years of age. 

TilH , ^completes the course in the elementary school. 

TilH , Vcompletes the course in the high school. 

Other classifications 

2. If the boy or girl is to leave school at fourteen, what work do you expect 

that he or she will take up ? 



72 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED OF TEACHERS 

1. If not clearly indicated above, is the child reported on this blank a boy 

or a girl ? 

2. What will be the age of the child in September, 191 1 ? 



3. If not withdrawn from school, when would you expect the child to 
graduate from the elementary school? Indicate below. 

r February f February f February f February 

^ l^June '' -^^^June ^ ^\June ^ ^'June 

It is quite evident that the results of this prehminaiy investi- 
gation cannot be taken as conclusive, but they seem to furnish 
some evidence that parents are willing to cooperate with the 
school authorities in the important matter of adapting education 
to time limitations where such limitations exist. 

In fact it appears to the author that this willingness to co- 
operate is more marked on the part of the parents than it is in 
the case of the typical school principal. The chief obstacle to the 
investigation seems to have been the attitude of the principals. 
They say, " We are not much interested in vocational education 
in our school," or " How can a boy of thirteen know what he 
wants to do .? " or "Parents do not know what they zvill do re- 
garding the education of their children, and they would not tell 
you if they did." Others feel that " the parents are incapable of 
filling out the blanks intelligently." Nevertheless one principal, 
in a predominandy foreign district, secured fairly trustworthy 
replies in essentially every case. He was able to demonstrate the 
fact that 25 per cent of his twelve- to thirteen-year-old pupils 
were to receive but two more years of schooling. 

From an examination of the returns it appears that a consid- 
erable number of parents are willing to state, when the child 
is between twelve and thirteen years of age, that his schooling 
is to terminate at fourteen, or as soon as the law permits. It is, 
of course, entirely possible that some of these parents may 



A PLAN FOR IMMEDIATE REORGANIZATION 73 

reconsider the question and keep the child in school for one or 
two years more, but this very desirable decision will be reached 
more frequently when the schools make some concessions to 
the needs of the early workers. 

It is believed that one or more of the features of the plan 
outlined in this chapter will be found effective in meeting the 
needs of pupils of this type. 

An examination of the chart (p. 65) will show graphically the 
several features of the plan, and the descriptions of the various 
schools and classes given in the following chapters are illus- 
trative of one or another of these features. It will be seen that 
taken together they form as complete a plan as the one here 
outlined. While no city in the country has yet evolved such 
a complete system, it will be seen that it is perfectly feasible to 
do so, since each feature of it has been put into successful opera- 
tion somewhere. 

It is felt that a study of these several examples of industrial 
education will furnish the strongest arguments in their favor. 

It is the author's intent, therefore, to give, in the remaining 
chapters, descriptions and brief historical sketches of typical 
schools and to interpret the nature and purpose of the instruc- 
tion given in them. In most instances he has personally visited 
and studied the schools described, although liberal use has been 
made of the published statements of those directly responsible 
for their management. 

No attempt has been made to include all the existing exam- 
ples of industrial education, though it is believed that no con- 
spicuous instanfce of an original and important contribution by a 
public school has been omitted. 

Bulletin No. II of the National Society for the Promotion of 
Industrial Education gives a descriptive list of trade and indus- 
trial schools in the United States. While this list is more com- 
plete than the one given herewith, it omits, as not falling within 



74 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

the scope of the work of the society, several experiments which 
the author believes lie at the very foundation of the larger 
conception of the movement for vocational education. These 
experiments are classified as "prevocational," and, as the term 
indicates, they deal with the period preceding that in which a 
real vocational training is possible or desirable. As such schools 
furnish a suitable foundation for vocational education, and espe- 
cially as they succeed in interesting in such education pupils 
who would otherwise be lost to the school system altogether, 
their vocational significance is not to be questioned. It is there- 
fore believed that they may very properly be included in this 
study of industrial schools. Some of these experiments are de- 
scribed in Chapter X. 



CHAPTER IX 

EXAMPLES OF MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 

In the preceding chapter a plan was proposed for meeting 
the immediate needs of the present generation of school children 
without modifying, in any radical way, the prevailing systems 
of school organization. Everything suggested therein might be 
put into operation and still leave untouched the common divi- 
sion into elementary and secondary schools of eight and four 
years respectively, and the present practice of grading on aver- 
ages and of advancing the pupils by yearly or semiannual pro- 
motions based on such grading. 

It is not to be doubted, however, that widespread dissatisfaction 
exists among educators with what are seen to be purely artificial 
distinctions and inconsequential practices. More clearly formu- 
lated p7Lrposes are determining the selection of subject matter, 
the adoption of methods of instruction, and particularly the 
formulation of plans of grading and promotion. In all parts 
of the country this dissatisfaction is indicated by the thoughtful 
experiments which are being inaugurated in school manage- 
ment. In the following pages a few of these experiments are 
briefly described. 

It has been recognized that retardation lies very near the 
source of those peculiar educational ills which it is the purpose 
of industrial training, especially that proposed for the elementary 
grades, to cure. 

AH efforts to reduce preventable retardation are worthy of 
careful study. Wherever "special classes," so called, classes 
for mental defectives or delinquents, or ungraded classes of any 

75 



76 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

description, are organized, this desirable end is brought nearer 
reahzation. • These classes, however, are so commonly found in 
school systems to-day that no detailed mention of them need 
be made. 

The methods of grading and the plans of promotion briefly 
described below are suggestive of still further progress in this 
direction. No attempt is made to treat the subject exhaustively 
or chronologically, but merely to emphasize the fact that the 
educational opportunity of the industrial worker can be advanced 
quite as effectively by saving " two wasted years " before four- 
teen as by devising special schools and methods for caring for 
retarded children between fourteen and sixteen years of age. 

The grading system has been c|uite generally based on the 
supposition that a certain amount of school work should be 
accomplished in a definite period, and the unit of time has 
commonly been one year. Under this system the pupil who is 
" retarded " usually, albeit with numerous individual exceptions, 
repeats the entire year's work. 

While in many cities promotions are now made semiannually, 
and elements of flexibility are being introduced into school grad- 
ing generally, it is probably within the facts to consider yearly 
promotions to be the plan which commonly obtains in the 
United States. 

Cambridge, Massachusetts 

The well-known " Cambridge Experiment " has been in oper- 
ation in that city for nearly twenty years. It permits pupils of 
varying abilities to pass through the " grammar " school by one 
or another of four different ways, requiring from four to six 
years respectively. This is done without " skipping " a grade or 
receiving "double promotion." 

This is accomplished by arranging three courses of study. A, 
B, and C, planned to cover the total amount of work normally 



MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION ^^ 

done in the last six years of the elementary school, in four, five, 
or six years respectively, by conducting classes along each course 
and by providing for transfers from one to another at inter- 
mediate points. This plan has not only resulted in reducing the 
percentage of pupils who take more than the allotted time to 
complete the elementary-school course, but also in enabling a 
considerable number to do the entire work of the school with 
a saving of one or even two years from the normal six. 

St. Louis, Missouri 

In St. Louis the school year is divided into four quarters, 
each quarter being ten weeks in length. Where the schools are 
sufficiently large it is possible to have a class corresponding to 
each quarter. By this arrangement contiguous classes are rarely 
more than ten weeks apart, and frequently are less. At the 
end of each quarter the pupils are graded, receiving marks of 
Excellent, Good, Moderate, Conditioned, or Failed. 

A pupil who continuously receives the highest grade, " Ex- 
cellent," is usually given the opportunity of attempting the work 
of the class immediately in advance, making up such work as 
may be necessary. 

A pupil who receives the grade " Failed " repeats the work 
of the quarter with the class immediately below the one in which 
he failed. Even if he is unable to recover the ground thus lost, 
he has added but ten weeks to the time required to complete 
the course. 

Class promotions are made four times a year, and the com- 
paratively short intervals between classes permit individual pro- 
motions at any time. 

The plan has been in operation for many years, and is be- 
lieved to be instrumental in lessening the amount of repetition 
in passage through the grades. This opinion seems to be sus- 
tained by Dr. Ayres's estimate ("Laggards in Our Schools," p. 87) 



78 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

that the average number of years for completing the eight grades 
in St. Louis is 8.98, thus placing this city well toward the head 
of the list of the twenty-nine cities investigated. 

Portland, Oregon 

Another city which stands well up in the above-mentioned 
list is Portland, Oregon. Regarding grading and promotions in 
the schools of that city Mr. Frank Rigler, city superintendent 
of schools, in his report for 191 o, says : 

In the earliest schools teaching was addressed to individuals, not classes. 
Each pupil recited in his turn from his own book. It soon became clear to 
teachers that time might be saved by teaching a group of several pupils to- 
gether. This was the beginning of classification, and out of this simple 
arrangement developed all the systems of classification now in existence. 
But while class teaching began as a matter of economy of time, it was soon 
found to possess other points of advantage over individual teaching. Its 
chief superiority is due to the fact that new ideas find different attachments 
in different minds, because of differences in antecedent experience. This 
causes a different point of view for each pupil in the class, hence the at- 
trition and liveliness of a well-conducted class recitation. 

In the formation of classes in a modern school several things must be 
considered, first among them the size of the class. It has been said by an 
innovator that one teacher may instruct a class of eighty or one hundred 
just as easily as a smaller number, because a presentation good for one is 
good for all within the sound of the teacher's voice. The fallacy of this 
view is apparent when we reflect that it is not only the teacher's duty to 
present her subject to a class, but also to note the effect of such presentation 
upon each individual in her presence. No teacher can perform this latter 
function if she has to address one hundred pupils. Those who can perform 
it with a class of forty pupils are comparatively few. Those who can notice 
the effect of teaching upon twenty are many times more numerous. Per- 
haps somewhere between fifteen and twenty-five is the ideal number to be 
engaged in any recitation, and this leads to the conclusion that in the modern 
elementary schoolroom there should be two classes, one of which is study- 
ing while the other is reciting. Besides having the right number engaged 
in a recitation, an ideal classification would require that their attainments 
and their powers be exactly equal. It is not possible, of course, to obtain 
this ideal classification, but when instruction addressed to the class seems 



MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 79 

trivial to the top, or unintelligible to those at the bottom, the classification 
is bad and ought to be changed. Practical classification, in what are ac- 
counted good schools of the present day, lies somewhere between these 
two extremes. The fact that the classification is not ideal requires it to be 
supplemented by individual teaching. It is noticed by the alert teacher that 
the assignment, study, and recitation of a lesson have not produced the 
desired effect upon certain pupils of the class. Therefore such efforts must 
be supplemented by individual work. While it has always been the prac- 
tice in most schools to recognize this function of individual teaching, yet in 
some parts of the country, notably Batavia, New York, there has been, 
within the past decade, a revival of interest and emphasis upon this very 
important matter. Other things being equal, it is desirable that a class or- 
ganization, when once formed, should remain fixed for a considerable period 
of time. The fact that only equality of attainments is considered when mak- 
ing up classes tends to defeat this desirable end, for that part of the class 
having the greater mental power draws rapidly away from the other part. 
So whether there be a formal division or not, there must be a practical divi- 
sion made by the teacher, by addressing one part of the instruction to the 
upper half of the class, and the other part to the lower half. In fact, I 
have heard teachers themselves classified as teachers of leaders and teachers 
of trailers, according to the proportion of the time that they devoted to 
the two groups into which an ordinary class tends to divide. 

The Portland system of classification prevents this disintegration of 
classes by taking into consideration power as well as attainment when 
classes are formed. 

The course of study is divided into fifty-four parts, numbered continu- 
ously from one to fifty-four. The time is divided into terms of five months 
each, promotions taking place regularly at the end of each term. Three 
terms, or one and one-half years, constitute what we for convenience call 
a cycle. Classes are permitted to progress at whatever rate is found suit- 
able to their powers, but the two standard rates are three parts per term 
for second divisions and four parts per term for first divisions. 

The normal class interval at the beginning of a cycle is three parts of 
the course of study, measured not in time but in work. In large schools 
the class interval is often only two parts of the course, sometimes in the 
lower classes only one part of the course. 

At the beginning of each cycle any group of pupils who have reached 
the same point in the course of study is separated into a first and second 
division. By the end of the first term the first divisions will have passed 
over four parts of the course of study, and the second divisions over only 
three. By the end of the second term the first divisions will have passed 



8o EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

over eight parts of the course of study, and the second divisions over only 
six. At the end of the third term the first divisions will have advanced twelve 
parts, and the second divisions only nine. It will be seen now that each first 
division has overtaken the second division next above it. In the new cycle 
these two divisions are united and again divided. In this redivision some 
of the pupils that did first-division work during the preceding cycle are 
put into a second division, and some who did second-division work are put 
into a first division. 

While the normal cycle is a period of three terms, and while most of 
the overtaking and redividing is done at the end of these cycles, neverthe- 
less in large schools where the interval between some of the classes is only 
two parts of the course, the second divisions are overtaken in two terms. 
On the other hand, in smaller schools, the class interval is sometimes four 
parts of the course of study, and the cycle is extended to four terms. At 
the close of each term, occasionally during the course of a term, there is 
some overtaking and redividing to be done. I am of the opinion that in a 
thirty-room building the class interval for the first ten rooms could be made 
one part, for the next fifteen rooms two parts, and for the highest five 
rooms three parts, of the course. 

In every schoolroom there are two divisions progressing at different 
rates. Where the more advanced is a first division the classes are said to 
be diverging, that is, the interval between them is " increasing." Early in 
the cycle this is the condition in most schoolrooms, but in the third term of 
the cycle we try, as far as possible, to have first divisions roomed with second 
divisions which are in advance of them. Such classes are said to be " con- 
verging," that is, the interval between them is diminishing. 

In the exigencies of rooming it is sometimes necessary to make up a 
" division " by taking the stronger members of a first division and classing 
them with the weaker ones of a second division, who are one or one and 
one-half parts in advance of them. In such cases the division commences 
its work at the point already reached by its stronger members. The interval 
of one or one and one-half parts can thus be passed over very rapidly, 
being review for the weak ones and new work for very strong pupils. 

Such emergency divisions, however, do not usually continue more than 
a term. By that time the strong pupils have outstripped the weak and they 
are then classed with the strongest members of the same second divisions 
whose weaker members they have just passed, their place being taken by 
the middle section of the same division. 

An important feature of our system of classification is promotion by 
subjects instead of by " averages." A pupil may do first-division work 
in one subject and second-division work in another. Sometimes he will 



MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 8 1 

have to recite part of his work in one room and part in another, but 
no inconvenience need result from this. In fact, it is an advantage in 
rooming, as we car) make his headquarters in the less crowded of the 
two rooms. 

This system of classification and promotion was introduced into the 
schools of Portland in 1897, and has been in operation continuously since 
that time. Before its introduction we used the orthodox eight-grade system 
with semiannual promotion. If a pupil wished to go faster than the eight- 
year rate, he might take a term's work with one class and the review work 
with the next higher class. Thus in a term of five months, he did work 
that was intended for a year. It will be noted, however, that the rate at 
which the higher term's work was done, under these conditions, was five 
times as fast as the ordinary rate of pupils ; and if it were kept up continu- 
ously, a pupil would finish the eight grades of the elementary schools in 
one and three-fifths years. The result of such a system was that very few 
pupils ever did more than the normal quantity of work, and those who did 
were found subsequently to be deficient in the ground passed over with 
such unwarranted rapidity. Then again, there was no way in which a pupil 
could take a lower rate than the orthodox one, without failing and repeating 
the work of a term. 

If I understand the plan pursued at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and one 
recently mentioned by Dr. Edison under the head of plus classes, the rate 
of speed for first classes or first divisions is one and one-half times that of 
the slower classes or second divisions. If this rate were continued through- 
out the course, it would cause the first division to complete the work of the 
elementary schools in five and one-third years, the slower ones doing it in 
the orthodox eight years. Now, under the Portland plan, a pupil who 
does first-division work during his entire life in the elementary school will 
be prepared for high-school work in seven years. A pupil who does second- 
division work all the time will require nine years to complete the elemen- 
tary course. We find that perhaps a third of the pupils require this time, 
and they get it with us, not by failing once or twice and repeating some 
particular part of the course, but by doing somewhat less work each term 
for the entire nine years. Our first division proceeds one and one-third 
times as rapidly as our second division, or one and one-eighth times as 
rapidly as the normal class in the orthodox eight-grade system. 

Fully half of our pupils are able to maintain this rate throughout the 
course, without detriment to their health and without much home study. 
A considerable number do part first-division and part second-division work, 
and thus complete the elementary course in seven and one-half, eight, or 
eight and one-half years. 



82 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Menomonie, Wisconsin 

In Menomonie the system of grading, from the fifth grade 
through the high school, is not vitally related to the plan of 
promotion. 

Pupils are graded every six weeks and in each subject, the 
" grade " indicating the position of the pupil with relation to the 
class average in that subject. If the pupil falls a certain per- 
centage below the class average, successively, in a subject, he is 
required to take the work in that subject with the next lower 
section. Such a pupil may carry the work of the grade from 
which he has just fallen, if he is able to do so, and may be re- 
instated at the end of the six weeks, provided he can reach the 
required standing in the subject. The superintendent, Mr. George 
A. Works, states that a considerable proportion of the pupils 
recover their grade during the six weeks' trial period. 

The plan gives an equal opportunity to the able pupil to carry 
additional work in the class just in advance. It is obvious that 
this plan requires a departmental system, and would therefore 
be of questionable expediency for earlier grades. 

Cleveland, Ohio 

Beginning with the summer of 191 1, the entire school system 
of Cleveland was reorganized on a quarterly plan of four terms 
of approximately three months each, there being only a brief 
vacation between the quarters. 

While this reorganization involves many educational questions, 
it is of interest in this connection because the schools were open, 
during the first summer c|uarter, only to pupils who were below 
grade. There were about ten thousand such pupils in the city, 
about five thousand of whom enrolled for the summer quarter. 
This, therefore, may properly be considered another plan for 
reducing retardation. 



MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 83 

Chicago, Illinois 

Experiments intended to reduce the amount of retardation 
in both the elementary and the high school were inaugurated in 
the Chicago public schools in the summer of 19 11. 

There were administered in connection with three of the va- 
cation schools, although in a measure independently of them, 
what were styled "Review Schools." Classes were formed for 
Grades 5, 6, 7, and 8, and were open to children recommended 
by principals of the elementary schools. 

To be eligible for membership in these classes a child must 
have failed of promotion the preceding year, but also must have 
shown some ability to recover his grade by the extra work of the 
summer session. The measure of success was to be determined 
by an examination given by the principal of the elementary 
school on the return of the children in September. 

Three such review schools were in session for six weeks of 
the summer vacation, on four mornings a week from nine till 
twelve o'clock. 

Wendell Phillips High School 

Summer high-school classes, for pupils who had failed in 
one or more studies during the preceding year, were organized 
in the Wendell Phillips High School. 

The classes received two lessons a day in each subject, with 
a study hour between, and were thus enabled, with ten recitations 
a week, to cover in five weeks the work of a quarter, or what 
amounted to a complete review of a semester's work. 

No pupil was permitted to enter the school for the purpose 
of doing advanced work. 

Partly as an experiment, and partly because of financial con- 
ditions, a tuition fee of ten dollars was charged each pupil. This 
fact is thought to have some bearing on the measure of success 



84 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

attending the venture. Two hundred and ten pupils were reg- 
istered in these classes and 89 per cent passed in one or more 
subjects. 

The tuition fee practically covered all expenses. 

It is expected that the review schools will become an integral 
part of the Chicago school system. 

Berkeley, Caijfornia 

The plan of organization described below has been in op- 
eration in the Berkeley schools for two years with marked and 
salutary effect on the retention of pupils. 

The units of the school system are three in number instead of 
the conventional two. The first, the elementary school, com- 
prises the first six years ; the second, the lower high school, 
the seventh, eighth, and ninth years ; and the third, the upper 
high school, the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years. 

While satisfactory completion of the work of the first or second 
unit confers eligibility for the next higher grade, the main em- 
phasis is not placed on preparation with the higher school as a 
goal. Instead, the work of each unit is based on the assumption 
that all the children might leave school at the end of that par- 
ticular cycle of work. Mr. Frank F. Bunker, superintendent of 
city schools, says that he is willing to contend that such a plan 
results "not only in the best possible preparation for those who 
drop out, but likewise the best possible preparation for those who 
go on from grade to grade, finally entering the university." 

In a report to the Board of liducation recommending the 
adoption of the plan, Mr. Bunker said : 

An examination of this plan will convince one, I think, that the division 
of the grades into three groups is a much more natural one than the ar- 
rangement under which we are now working, with a division of the grades 
into two groups only. 

Statistics show that the masses are held in school no longer than through 
the fifth grade, and that at the close of the fifth grade they drop out in very 



MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 85 

large numbers, which means, educationally, that whatever is to be taught to 
the masses must be given in the first five or six years. 

In the schools comprising this group of the first six years I would have 
the course of study uniform for all children and somewhat narrow in its 
scope. I would see to it that emphasis is placed on those things which the 
masses must have if they are to get on at all. I would see to it, whether or 
not anything else were got, that at least the children learn how to read, 
how to write, how to use their own language, both orally and in written form, 
how to perform with facility and accuracy the simple operations of arith- 
metic and of accounting, and I would also see to it that in these first six 
years they get somewhat of a sympathetic knowledge of their city, state, 
and national government, and that they also learn the elementary things 
about sanitation and health conditions which everybody needs to know, not 
only to protect themselves as individuals, but to protect society as well. I 
would select from the corps for work in these first six years, teachers who 
are particularly adapted to handling children of this early age and to incul- 
cating the content which I have just outlined. 

In the "introductory high schools" there would be congregated the 
seventh, eighth, and ninth years. These years comprise another natural 
group, inasmuch as children would enter it at the beginning of the period 
of adolescence, when by nature they naturally crave an opportunity to dip 
into a wide range of subjects and activities, which is Nature's way of insuring 
a freedom of choice in determining occupation, and somewhat of intelligence 
in the same. I would have certain prescribed subjects for this group, but 
in addition thereto would permit as many electives as possible, thus making 
it unnecessary, as at present, for every child in the seventh and eighth grades 
to take exactly the same work as every other child. In contrast to the work 
of the first six years, I should wish to see the work of this group made 
exceedingly rich in content and variety, and particularly in human interest. I 
should hope to see the work of this group relate very closely to life and be 
as far away as possible from that which is purely academic in education. 
I should wish much emphasis placed on learning how to study, how to use 
the library, how to get material from the same with expedition and with judg- 
ment. If a child foresees that he wants to take German or Latin in the high 
school proper, I would wish him to begin these languages when he enters 
this group and thus have six years of work in the same before he enters col- 
lege instead of four, according to our present arrangement. I should wish 
to see the work of this group shaped up to make a more easy transition from 
the work of the elementary grades to the departmental work of the high 
school. In line with this I should wish teachers assigned to work in these 
grades who have a broad culture and wide experience in teaching in the grades. 



86 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

By an arrangement of this kind it would seem that the work of the 
high school proper could be made more intensive than it is at the present 
time, with higher standards of scholarship and more rigid requirements 
than at present obtain, and without working any hardship upon the young 
people who enter the same ; for it would seem that if this work which I 
have outlined be carefully and efficiently done, that the incoming student 
will have developed a much more serious attitude toward his work than 
obtains at the present time, will have oriented himself better, so far as his 
subjects are concerned, and that the break will not be so great or so dis- 
couraging as with the plan under which we are now working. 

It is evident that the crucial point of this unique organization 
is to be found in the lower high school, and the plan commends 
itself for the reason that this period of school life coincides very 
closely with that period of youth which is, perhaps, the most dif- 
ficult for the teacher to understand, and, therefore, the one where 
the pupils suffer most from misdirected effort on their own part 
and also on the part of their teachers. In this system of schools 
the major purpose of the intermediate unit is one of adjustment. 

Among other opportunities offered in this "trying-out" 
period is the possibility of selecting studies which appeal to 
the awakening vocational interests of some of the pupils. Thus 
far the vocational subjects offered have been commercial rather 
than industrial, but in such a community as Berkeley this is 
perhaps all that could reasonably be expected in the second 
year of such an important transition. 

Concord, New Hampshire 

The reorganized school system of Concord consists of three 
units or groups, which are numbered in the reverse order of 
the grades or years in school. 

Group 3, the elementary group, comprises the first six 
grades ; Group 2, the lower of the secondary groups, com- 
prises the seventh and eighth years ; and Group i , the ninth, 
tenth, and eleventh years, or the high school proper. 



MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION Sj 

The plan is thus similar to that of Berkeley, with the im- 
portant difference tliat, by the Concord plan, an attempt is made 
to save a year's time. It is believed that this is made possible 
by eliminating reduplication, which so frequently obtains in the 
last elementary and the first high-school year of the traditional 
school system. 

As carried out, the plan actually provides greater opportunity 
for differentiation than is found in Berkeley, as Vt^ill be seen by 
referring to the course of study for 1911-1912 (see pp. 88-90). 

In commenting on the plan Mr. Rundlett, superintendent 
of schools, says : 

" Through the first six years of this course the studies remain practically 
uniform for all pupils, the main idea being to teach them how to read, to 
write, to use the mother tongue properly, the essentials of history and 
geography, how to take care of their bodies and to live in cleanliness and 
purity, — in short, those things which all people should know in order to 
make the best use of their lives. Upon completing the work of Group 3 
the student may take up the work outlined for Group 2, making his choice 
of approved high-school courses or pursuing still farther what are commonly 
called the three R's. 

This change comes at a time in the pupil's life when he seeks variety. 
If he forecasts a college course, he may have five years of study instead of 
four. If he wishes a more practical course, he may choose a commercial 
or a mechanic arts course. In these grades emphasis will be placed upon 
teaching the pupil to become self-reliant, how to study as well as how to 
recite, and to get material for his work with dispatch and with good judg- 
ment. He will be introduced to departmental teaching, handled by teachers 
who make a study of individual natures, and have the approval of the state 
department as being qualified for the work, thus securing the benefit of 
teaching backed by broad culture and by individual grade experience. 

In the high school proper, Group i, advantage will be manifest in a de- 
creased enrollment, so that the general atmosphere will be relieved of the 
confusion of numbers. 

Eventually more rigid requirements and better standards of scholarship 
should result, because entering pupils will have had two years of serious 
preparation along lines of high-school work. 

This scheme is combined with semiannual promotion throughout the 
entire course." 



88 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



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MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 



89 



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Arithmetic 5 
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Commercial History 5 
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Penmanship (2) i 


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MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 91 

Gary, Indiana 

While most educational reforms are brought about gradually 
by numerous and relatively slight modifications of existing sys- 
tems, it sometimes happens that an educational institution is so 
situated that it can depart radically from the traditional and can 
organize its work to meet its own conditions without reference 
to precedent. Such a school would be difficult to "classify," 
but would, nevertheless, richly repay careful study. 

The Emerson School of Gary is such an institution. It has 
much that is pertinent to every phase of our subject, and, in 
fact, might appropriately be mentioned in most of the succeed- 
ing chapters as illustrative of the several types described therein. 
Perhaps in no particular is it more noteworthy than in the pro- 
visions which it makes for securing reasonable and continuous 
progress of its pupils from the first grade through the entire 
school. In fact this seems to be the central thought of its 
unique system. 

Partly because of the impossibility of considering the school 
or its work along vocational lines, under the classifications which 
we have made, a description of it cannot here be given. The 
student of education is referred, however, to a popular article in 
Hampton's Magazine for July, 191 1, entitled "Keeping the 
Children in School." ^ 

Perhaps one cannot wholly agree with the enthusiastic writer 
of the article, that the Emerson School " is the educational 
center of the United States, the public school of the future," 
or that " there is not a city in the United States where the 
Gary system could not be applied "; and one must entirely dis- 
agree with certain criticisms of procedures supposed to obtain 
in " average " schools, but a sympathetic reading will convince 

1 A subsequent report of the school, written by Dr. John F. Bobbitt, ap- 
peared in The Elementary School Teacher (The University of Chicago Press), 
for February, 1912. 



92 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



the most conventional and conservative that here is an unusually 
suggestive example of popular democratic education. 

The author has studied the Emerson School and is inclined 
to think that, in respect to its cooperation with manufacturers 
and labor unions, and to its great economy of effort, of space, 
and especially of the children's time, it is one of the most re- 
markable and interesting schools which he has ever visited. 

Mr. William A. Wirt, superintendent of the Gary schools, 
says : 

The school program is so arranged that during each morning and each 
afternoon session of the school one half the pupils have ninety minutes of 
work in the regular subjects, — English, history, and mathematics, — followed 
by ninety minutes of work in the special subjects, — manual training, science, 
drawing, music, play, and physical culture. The remaining pupils have the 
same program but in reverse order, the regular work following the ninety 
minutes of special work. Thus work in both regular and special subjects is 
being carried on continuously during the day, by special teachers and on 
the departmental plan, as far as desired, in either group. 

A child, if it is for his best interest to do so, may take an extra amount 
of regular work in place of a portion of the special work, or vice versa. Thus 
a boy who has failed in English can make up his deficiency by going into 
another regular English class during his special-work period. A boy whose 
interests demand that he be given more time in manual training can have a 
maximum of three hours a day in that subject, if desirable, during the reg- 
ular school hours. 

The regular sessions are from S.30 a.m. to 12 m. and from i to 4 p.m. 
The library, playgrounds, gymnasia, swimming pools, shops, and laboratories 
are open for two hours additional time during the five school days and for 
eight hours on Saturday. Thus pupils may supplement the work of these 
departments with extra work out of regular hours. The school plant is also 
open from 7.30 to 9.30 p.m. for continuation-school and social and recrea- 
tional activities. Day-school pupils, by special permission, may supplement 
the day-school work by evening work. 

A leaflet printed in the school reads as follows : 

Reduce the first cost of your school plants and the actual per-pupil cost 
of school maintenance by adding manual training, nature study, music, 
drawing, playground and gymnasium equipment, and specially trained 



MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION 



93 



teachers for each of these departments. By adding these departments with 
specially trained teachers you can also relieve permanently and completely 
the overcrowded school program and curriculum, and the overburdened 
teacher and pupil. It all depends upon how you do it. 

The following program shows how the number of pupils in an ordinary 
eight-room school has been doubled, and the number of pupils per teacher and 
supervisor has been increased. 



Regular School 


Forenoon 


Afternoon 


Teachers 


Rooms 


90 Min. 


90 Min. 


90 Min. 


90 Min. 


First Grade .... 


Classroom 


la 


lb 


la 


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Second Grade 








Classroom 


2a 


2b 


2a 


2b 


Third Grade . 








Classroom 


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3b 


3a 


3b 


Fourth Grade 








Classroom 


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4b 


4a 


4b 


Fifth Grade . 








Classroom 


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5a 


5b 


Sixth Grade . 








Classroom 


6a 


6b 


6a 


6b 


Seventh Grade 








Classroom 


7a 


7b 


7a 


7b 


Eighth Grade 








Classroom 


8a 


8b 


8a 


8b 



Special School 


45 
Min. 


45 
Min. 


45 
Min. 


45 
Min. 


45 
Min. 


45 
Min. 


45 
Min. 


45 


Teachers 


Rooms 


Min. 


Music 


Auditorium 


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Drawing and M. T. . 


Basement 


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la 


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Literature 


Library 


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6b 


5a 


6a 


7b 


8b 


7a 


8a 


Nature Study . . . 


Basement 


7b 


8b 


7a 


Sa 


5b 


6b 


5a 


6a 


Three Physical- 


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5b 


6a 


5a 


Culture Teachers 


Attic 
Playground 


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8b 


7b 


8a 


7a 


and the Building 


6b 


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Principal 


I, Playground 


8b 


7b 


8a 


7a 


4b 


3b 


2a 


la 



For the sake of clearness the improved school machine is represented as 
two schools, a regular school and a special school. The special school occupies 
what was formerly waste space in this building. Eight teachers are in the 
regular school, and eight teachers, including the building principal, are in the 
special school. Sixteen schoolrooms are accommodated in an ordinary eight- 
room school building. Including the school principal and the special super- 
visors, only one teacher per schoolroom is employed. 

Under the old program there were sixteen classes in this building, but each 
class was only half schoolroom size and each teacher had two classes in a 



94 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

room at the same time. Under the new program the number of classes remains 
the same, but each teacher has only one class in a schoolroom at any period 
and the classes are full schoolroom size. The new program is used success- 
fully in four-room schools, eight-room schools, groups of portable schools, and 
thirty-room school buildings constructed especially for the new system. 

The physical-culture teachers keep the playground open during the noon 
hour, an hour after school, and from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. on Saturdays. 

The foregoing instances of attempts to modify the funda- 
mental organization of school systems and to introduce elements 
of flexibility affecting the whole scheme of education are un- 
doubtedly indications of a deep-seated dissatisfaction with tradi- 
tional educational motives and standards. They reveal as well a 
determination, on the part of educators, to remodel the public 
schools from within. 

Meanwhile advancement has been made in other localities by 
developing new schools and classes without affecting, immedi- 
ately and directly, the system as a whole. These new educational 
" experiments " are generally confined to a limited field and 
their purpose is clearly defined. Generally speaking they have 
been brought out by forces outside the educational field, or, at 
all events, at the suggestion of those who are not of the teach- 
ing profession, and they are expected to benefit primarily those 
who have profited least by the prevailing types of schools. 

It is the purpose of the succeeding five chapters to classify, 
describe, and interpret some of these examples. 



CHAPTER X 

PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 

The schools described in this chapter have been conducted 
with the purpose of improving the courses of study in the ele- 
mentary school, especially for those children who have not 
worked successfully under the prevailing methods found therein. 

It will be noted that these new courses of study are not 
intended to deprive boys and girls of further education in the 
higher schools, but that they aim to save for this education a much 
larger percentage of the school population, while at the same time 
giving information about, and practice in, some industrial work. 

Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the necessity for 
appreciating this double purpose of prevocational work. The 
word " vocational " serves in one case to describe the " end " of 
the education given, and in the other to indicate the " interest " 
which is utilized as a force impelling to an even higher end. 

The Agassiz School Industrial Classes, 
Boston, Massachusetts 

This was the first of the existing experiments in industrial 
training established within the elementary schools of Boston, and, 
it is believed, the first of this type in the country, having been 
organized in September, 1907. 

The primary purpose in establishing the classes was to provide 
an experiment, the results of which would assist in answering 
one or all of the following questions : 

( I ) Is it possible so to modify the elementary-school curriculum 
that it will become more effective in training pupils for industrial 

95 



96 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

pursuits, while maintaining the same efficiency in preparation 
for high schools ? 

(2) Will a considerable number of boys and their parents be 
interested in such a course of study, should it be established ? 

(3) If taken by boys otherwise likely to leave school at four- 
teen years of age, will this course have the effect of inducing 
them to stay longer in school ? 

(4) Will the pupils be as interested in manufacturing a prod- 
uct which is to be used by the city as in making for themselves 
the ordinary manual-training models ? 

It was for the purpose of gaining some practical experience 
relating to these questions that the school committee on May 6, 
1907, passed the following order, namely : 

That the superintendent be authorized to designate one or more boys, 
elementary schools in which the course of study may be experimentally 
modified for the purpose of determining in what way these schools may 
become more effective in training pupils for industrial pursuits, while at the 
same time maintaining their efficiency in preparation for high schools. 

In accordance therewith the superintendent selected the 
Agassiz School, Jamaica Plain. 

About a week before the close of the school, copies of the 
following circular were distributed among the boys who were to 
be in Grade 6 during the coming year. 

Agassiz School, Jamaica Plain, Mass., June, 1907. 

An opportunity will be offered, next September, to fifty boys of Grade 
6 in the Agassiz district, to enter a class in which the course of study is 
planned especially for boys who have an aptitude for industrial pursuits. 

The course will offer more manual training, shop arithmetic, and working 
drawing, and at the same time will maintain the efficiency of preparation 
for high schools. 

If you wish your boy to join this class, please sign the following blank 
form and return it to the master of the school. 

As the number who can be accommodated in this course is limited, the 
earliest applications will be considered first. 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 97 

Nearly one third of all the boys eligible for the class applied 
within one week, and in the following September a sixth-grade 
class of fifty boys was organized. 

The class was divided into two sections of twenty-five boys 
each, and each section worked one hour of each school day. 

In determining the nature of the work to be done, and in 
selecting the articles to be made, one fundamental principle 
served as index and guide. Everything must conform as closely 
as possible to actual industrial work in real life. It was decided 
that the product must be not only useful, but must be needed 
and must be put to actual use ; that it must be something which 
may be produced in quantities ; that the method must be prac- 
tical, and both product and method must, so far as possible, 
be subjected to the same commercial tests, as apply in actual 
industry. 

For two years these boys had done the regular manual-train- 
ing work of Grades 4 and 5, — cardboard construction, — so it was 
decided to begin the industrial work with box making. 

It was found that pasteboard boxes, costing three quarters of 
a cent each, were being used by the school department in send- 
ing out certain supplies, and the class undertook the manufacture 
of several hundred of these boxes. 

The method employed was as follows : First a sample box 
was studied and careful note was taken of its use, of the material 
of which it was made, and of the details of its construction. Es- 
pecial attention was called to the dimensions and to the need of 
obtaining accurate results in order that all boxes might serve the 
purposes for which they were intended and also be alike. 

Each boy then made one entire box, drawing, cutting, scoring, 
gluing, staying corners, pasting. 

Next, by a brief talk and with necessary demonstration, an 
explanation was given of the greater economy of employing 
" industrial methods." 



98 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Jigs were made for facilitating some of the operations and for 
securing greater uniformity in the product. The class was or- 
ganized into different groups of from two to six boys each, each 
group performing one of the several operations involved in the 
making of the box or the cover. There were the box cutters, 
cover cutters, stayers, pasters, fitters, and gluers. There were 
those who assembled, inspected, packed, and counted the boxes, 
and there were the assistant teachers, — foremen in embryo. 

Of course this was not all done in one lesson. By the time 
seven hundred and fifty of these boxes were made and packed, 
ready for the supply team, the boys had gained at least a glimmer 
of light on five points of superiority of this the industrial method 
over the method first employed : first, that there was greater 
economy in the use of material ; second, that much time was 
saved, since it was not necessary to lay aside one tool and hunt 
for another at the completion of a single operation ; third, that 
the skill increased very rapidly by performing the same operation 
many times ; fourth, that a standard of accomplishment in a 
given time was established, below which no self-respecting boy 
wished to fall ; fifth, that a " good " box could not be produced 
if any of the group of boys did " bad " work. 

In passing I must note and answer one objection which some 
advocates of " educational " manual training will make, namely, 
that frequent repetition of the same movement is not educational, 
since it becomes practically automatic, — a matter of the spinal 
cord. Be that as it may, the boys show an ever-increasing in- 
terest and delight in their work as they become more and more 
skillful, for there is a keen joy in mere accomplishment which 
is by no means a matter of the spinal cord, but of an intelli- 
gence which is much higher. It should also be noted in this 
connection that from time to time the groups were changed, so 
that in the end all the boys had performed several, if not all, of 
the different operations. 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 99 

The second project was a box smaller and more finely con- 
structed than the first. Sixteen hundred of these were made. 

In speaking of the methods used in making the later projects 
it is only necessary to note two points in which they differed 
from those first employed : First, in the earlier project the 
groups were chosen with reference to the ability of individual 
boys and the difficulty of the several operations ; in the later, 
the groups were formed by taking the boys in order, and by 
appointing a foreman for each group. 

Second, a system of " check " was introduced, which made it 
possible to trace poor work to its author, thus fixing responsi- 
bility. After the completion of the second project some calcu- 
lations were made to ascertain the increase of efficiency, and it 
was found to be about 400 per cent. 

Each year since 1907 approximately 33 per cent of the boys 
of the sixth grade of the Agassiz School have requested per- 
mission to enter the industrial class, and each year more than the 
average number of boys have been regularly promoted, so that 
since September, 1909, there have been three grades, 6, 7, and 
8, included in the experiment. 

It is to be observed that during the four years fewer boys 
have left school at the age of fourteen than would ordinarily be 
expected in this district ; that the boys have done all of the reg- 
ular work of the school excepting manual training, which the 
industrial work supersedes ; and that interest has been maintained, 
though the product has been a practical one manufactured in 
quantity and used by the school department. 

The so-called industrial work consists of the making of arti- 
cles from heavy pasteboard and other box materials, as illustrated 
by the first projects described above, and also of woodworking 
and drawing, free-hand and mechanical. 

Briefly outlined by grades, the work, or product, of the initial 
class during its three years was as follows : 



lOO EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Grade 6. During this year the following articles were made 
by the boys : 

850 pasteboard chalk boxes for the supply department. 
1750 pasteboard crayon boxes for use in elementary schools. 
500 pasteboard pencil boxes, cloth covered, for use in high 

schools. 
710 Harvard covers for use in high schools. 
846 wooden sand shovels for use in summer playgrounds. 
A portion of the time was given to mechanical drawing, which 
consisted of simple geometrical problems and the working draw- 
ings of the projects to be made. 

Grade 7. In this year there were made : 

34 portfolios for use in the evening industrial school. 
333 boards for modeling classes. 

266 wooden looms, 266 heddles, and 522 shuttles for 
use in the sixth-grade weaving of the elementary 
schools. 
100 wooden specimen boxes for use in the normal school. 
36 work boxes. 
6 wooden cases for the evening industrial school 
(begun). 
A limited amount of time was given to the making of working 
drawings of the different projects. 

Grade 8. The work of this grade has been as follows : 
Completion of the 6 cases above noted. 
100 boards for use in modeling classes. 
4 window ventilators. 
24 wooden trays for cardboard-construction equipment. 
100 wooden bench hooks for the supply department. 
1000 wooden bench stops for the supply department. 
600 specimen blocks for the Agassiz School. 
2400 card-catalogue boxes for the school department 
(begun). 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 loi 

In this grade less time was given to construction work and 
more to drawing. The boys were taught the more accurate use 
of drawing instruments, and made carefully finished working 
drawings. During the last half of the year the boys made a 
catalogue of the work of the industrial classes. This catalogue 
included mechanical and free-hand drawings of all the articles 
made. It also included such designing of the cover and spac- 
ing of the pages as would make the catalogue attractive. By this 
method attention was called to the practical use of mechanical 
drawing, free-hand drawing, color, and design. 

Only a few facts and some incomplete statistics regarding the 
work of the boys of this initial class, subsequent to graduation 
from the elementary school, are available. 

While these boys selected the course because they were indus- 
trially inclined, 38 stayed to graduate. Of these, 24 entered high 
school, 6 went into mechanical work, 2 into clerical work, and 
the vocations of the remaining 6 are unknown. 

Of the 24 who entered high school, 10 went to the Mechanic 
Arts High School, 3 to the English High School, 2 to the Latin 
School, 2 to the Commercial High School, and 7 to the general 
local high school. Three of the 24 left school before the close of 
the year. Strangely enough, these three were all from the tech- 
nical school. 

The standing of the boys in the first-year academic work of 
the high school was as follows : 7 ranked as poor, 1 1 as fair, 4 
as good, and 2 as very good. 

The above facts and figures would seem to indicate that the 
primary purpose for which the school was established, as stated 
in the opening paragraphs, had been achieved. The most im- 
portant result of the Agassiz School work, however, is to be 
seen in the several experiments in industrial education which it 
helped to promote in Boston and which are quite fully described 
in the annual report of the superintendent of schools for 19 10. 



I02 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

The Cleveland Elementary Industrial School ^ 

The city of Cleveland has been a pioneer in things educational. 
It is not surprising, therefore, to find that, with her large num- 
ber of manufacturing and commercial interests, she has taken 
a prominent part in the establishment of those school activities 
which, with differing shades of meaning and purpose, have been 
variously characterized as the manual and domestic arts, manual 
training, or industrial education. 

The Cleveland Manual Training High School was one of the 
first of its kind to be organized in the United States, and within 
a few years of its establishment the type of work given therein 
was extended downward into the elementary grades. 

The more recent movement to "' motivate " the work of the 
high schools met with early and adequate response by the estab- 
lishment of the Technical High School and the High School of 
Commerce, the first of which was opened for the enrollment of 
pupils and the organization of classes on October 5, 1908, and 
the secotid just one year later. 

The Elementary Industrial School, which was opened in 
September, 1909, and which it is the purpose of this article to 
describe, is intimately related to these earlier innovations in 
public education. The Technical High School was established 
with the purpose of providing an educational institution of strictly 
high-school standards, employing, it is true, somewhat different 
methods and appealing to different interests, but open only to 
graduates of the elementary school. 

The Technical High School has been extremely successful. 

The report of the committee on the place of industries in public , 

education of the National Educational Association says : 

The Technical High School of Cleveland seems to the committee to 
approach most closely to the definition previously given for such a school. 

1 Prepared by the author for the first number of J^ocatioiial Education, 
published at Peoria, Illinois. 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 103 

There are several " technical high schools " in the country, but an examination 
of their courses of study will show that they do not differ radically from 
ordinary manual-training high schools. 

Successful as the new school proved to be, it failed completely 
to influence the educational plans of the children who drop out 
of school at the sixth or seventh grade. This confirmed the 
school authorities in their belief that an institution employing 
somewhat similar methods, but nearer to the critical point in the 
school system, was an essential unit in that system. The Ele- 
mentary Industrial School, which had been in contemplation 
for some months, was therefore established as an "" experiment 
station." 

The problem was frankly admitted to be one of general edu- 
cation rather than of industrial training, and the investigation 
undertaken was addressed to the specific task of improving the 
course of study for Grades 7 and 8, especially with reference 
to those children who had not met with ordinary success under 
the methods of instruction commonly employed in the preced- 
ing grades. 

Briefly outlined, the plan was as follows : 

(i) A course of study was to be developed parallel to the 
existing course for Grades 7 and 8 which would appear more 
attractive to the children in question, and which would actually 
prove to be more helpful to them whether they remained in 
school for a longer or a shorter period. 

(2) The school day was to be lengthened to six hours. 

(3) One half the time was to be devoted to handwork. 

(4) The time devoted to each of the book subjects in the reg- 
ular elementary school was to be reduced by two fifths and was 
to be related to possible vocational interests of the pupils, not 
only those illustrated by the handwork of the school, but those 
possible of illustration by the prominent commercial and man- 
ufacturing activities of the community. That is to say, these 



I04 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

manual and vocational realities were to be made the central fea- 
tures of. the school, and around these were to be grouped all the 
other school activities. 

(5) The fundamental features of these subjects were to be pre- 
sented without too great elaboration, which frequently, through 
its very variety of illustration, proves to be most confusing to 
the young pupil. 

The educational theories, advanced in support of this plan, laid 
especial emphasis on the necessity of appealing to the children's 
desire for motor activity and their interest in and dependence 
upon concrete actualities. In fact, on hearing an explanation 
of the relation existing between the handwork and the book' 
subjects in this school, the writer was strongly reminded of the 
ideals of the earlier advocates of manual training. It seemed 
as if here was an attempt to realize more fully — perhaps, 
happily, to realize completely — the aims of the pioneers of 
twenty-five years ago, which, we are sometimes told, have not 
been realized because their promoters failed in the very prac- 
ticality which they professed to believe was fundamental. The 
following quotation from an official report of the school might 
well have been taken from some address made before an edu- 
cational body two decades since. 

On the other hand, this school rests upon the recognition of the fact that 
very many of the failures of children in the work of the schools are due 
not to lack of ability on the children's part, but to the failure to consider 
the needs of the hand-minded or practical-minded children on the part of 
the current systems in their one-sided attention to the language-minded and 
imaginative, — in the reliance upon the imagery of words and abstractions, 
rather than upon the actualities of concrete life, both in learning and doing. 

Elsewhere it has been observed that hand-minded children who had 
gained in their classes the reputation of dullards, and who had themselves 
lost faith in their powers, were restored to confidence and learned to make 
satisfactory progress even in previously distasteful subjects, when oppor- 
tunity came to them to exerci_se their powers in matters which appealed to 
their mental constitution and seemed to them worth while. If these children 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 105 

were to be afforded an opportunity to make the best of themselves, they 
must be approached from the side of the practical ; they must learn by doing 
in order to do. Thus alone could they be led to the cultural, to the discovery 
of the inestimable value of knowledge, of science, of art, and even to the 
pursuit of these for their own sake. Thus, alone, could the school hope to 
place them in full possession of their human inheritance, to reach and to 
stir into the fullest self-active life every phase of their mental constitution. 

With these plans and theories as guiding principles, the 
elementary industrial school was organized as follows : A ten- 
room building on Summer and East Thirteenth streets, a 
locality fairly central, was selected in which to house this ex- 
periment. There are three recitation rooms, one study room, 
one cooking room, one sewing room, two woodworking rooms, 
one drawing room, and one small room which was set aside 
to be equipped on different occasions as a model living room, 
dining room, bedroom, or sick room. This room is not yet 
equipped for the purposes for which it was intended, but the 
furniture and other fittings are being made by the pupils. 

The management of the school is nominally in the hands of 
a director who acts as principal, but the influence of the super- 
visor of manual training is everywhere apparent in the organi- 
zation of courses and in the spirit of liberal judgment which 
pervades the school. Contrary to the practice obtaining in most 
industrial schools, no special commercial or shop experience is 
demanded of the teachers as a necessary qualification. The 
two requisites are that they must have been excellent teachers 
either in the grade work or in the domestic or manual arts, and 
that they must be entirely free from that bias which long expe- 
rience in the traditional schools frequently gives. The teachers 
finally chosen are well described as scientific as to subject mat- 
ter and inspirational as to methods of instruction. 

While a single center was selected in which to make the 
experiment, it was intended to have the enterprise of common 
interest to the whole city. Therefore each principal was given 



Io6 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

the opportunity of sending from one to four boys or girls to 
this school. The selection of these children was made after 
consultation, and invariably with the consent of the parents. 
Only retarded children were desired. To be eligible for admis- 
sion to the school, the boy or girl must have been in the sixth 
grade for at least a year, must be thirteen years of age or over, 
and at least two years behind grade, the grade being determined 
on the supposition that the child would begin school at the age 
of six and progress one grade a year. Furthermore, the prin- 
cipals were requested to send only such children as, in their 
opinion, would otherwise withdraw from school altogether. 

In the light of the method of selection, it is interesting to 
examine the characteristics of the children who attended this 
school the first term. There were one hundred and forty-three 
children of whom approximately two thirds were boys. In age 
they varied from twelve to seventeen years, with an average of 
fourteen and two-tenths ; and in grades they ranged from the 
fifth to the seventh, indicating a departure from the original plan, 
but the children of the fifth grade were very rare exceptions. 

The school brought together a group of children who had 
Jaeen rather unsuccessful in the regular school work, who had 
lost interest, and who had especially lost confidence in tliem- 
selves. In some cases the boys and girls had been difficult to 
control, to say the least. They were said to be poor writers, poor 
spellers, poor in their grasp of the processes and applications of 
arithmetic; In short, they were distinctly of the "anti-book" type. 

The course of study employed may best be considered under 
two heads, the constructive or handwork, and the book or study 
work, though the supervisor of manual training says that " the 
important feature of the course of study is the close correlation 
and unity of all the subjects." 

The handwork comprises practice in working drawing, free- 
hand drawing and applied design, woodworking, cooking, sewing, 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 107 

and a little printing. These serve to call attention to certain 
vocations, as mechanical or architectural drawing, carpentry, 
cabinetmaking, pattern making, printing, domestic and laundry 
work, nursing, and dressmaking. That the handwork is con- 
sidered to be of great importance is evidenced by the fact that 
approximately one half of the time is devoted to it. This makes 
it possible to carry the work much farther than in the grade 
school. The work for the girls goes more thoroughly into house- 
hold science and art, and includes the purchase and preparation 
of foods, the service of meals, laundry work, the care of the sick, 
the furnishing, adornment, and care of the home, and the mak- 
ing of gai"ments. The boys work for a time on general courses, 
but are allowed to specialize on either mechanical drawing, wood 
turning, pattern making, cabinetmaking, carpentry, or printing, 
during the major part of the second year, A part of the prod- 
uct of this work becomes the property of the pupils, in which 
case they pay for the material used ; and the remainder of it, 
consisting of project and group work for the school, remains in 
the school. 

There is little in the equipment of the school kitchen, the 
sewing, woodworking, and drawing rooms, or in the work done 
therein, to distinguish the school from an exceptionally well- 
equipped, well-organized, and thoroughly modern elementary 
school. The chief difference is in the liberal allotment of time, 
which makes a corresponding difference in the amount of work 
done, and, to some extent, in its nature. This latter, however, 
is not marked, but it should be recalled that this is absolutely 
consistent with the expressed purpose of the school, and indi- 
cates a confidence on the part of its promoters in the efficacy 
of manual training as a factor in general education. 

In the book work some radical departures are made from 
the course of study for the grade schools, though it is main- 
tained by the teachers and the superintendent of schools that 



Io8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

the fundamentals of each subject in the curriculum are given. 
This, furthermore, is done in less time, — a total of only about 
fifteen hours a week. The subjects are classed as follows : 

English, which includes reading, writing, spelling, practical 
composition, and story-writing. 

Arithmetic, the four fundamental processes, percentage (one 
case), decimals, and fractions, all related as closely as possible 
to the handwork or illustrated by the keeping of school or of 
personal accounts. 

Geography-history, which is taught as one subject and 
springs from the consideration of commercial and industrial 
phenomena. 

Hygiene of a thoroughly practical character. 

Perhaps the most distinctively characteristic work of the 
school is the geography-history. It is believed that to put the 
child in intimate touch with his immediate environment is 
the very best way to interest him in the study of more distant 
places and people. Therefore the location, climate, topography, 
and soil of Cleveland are studied and described. These in turn 
explain the manufacturing, commerce, and history of Cleveland, 
which are studied in the most practical way possible. The chil- 
dren are taken on excursions to manufacturing plants, to the 
flour mills and the large distributing concerns. The railroads 
and other means of transportation are discussed, and this leads 
to an understanding of the life and work of the people of Cleve- 
land, their varying interests, and their connection with other 
parts of the country and with other days. Visits to the grain, 
cattle, lumber, or steel centers carry the children far afield, to 
be brought back by their work in the school kitchen and shops. 
The teaching of this subject appears to be especially efficient, 
and the classroom has the appearance of a museum of indus- 
trial products. The exhibits are neither large nor numerous, 
but are fairly representative of local industrial interests, and the 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 109 

children are helped by them, as well as by the instruction, to 
a comprehension of some of the industrial possibilities which 
the future may hold in store for them. 

It is rather difficult to speak of the " results " of any educa- 
tional experiment, because of the variety of influences which 
may have affected them. This is peculiarly true when the data 
are drawn from a comparatively small number of cases, and cover 
so short a period as that during which the Elementary Industrial 
School has been in existence. However, judgment and opinion 
are better guides than blind prejudice, and since some prejudice 
still exists against anything industrial in the domain of elemen- 
tary education, the writer will venture to state what, in his opinion, 
the two years seem to show. 

The pupils came to the school from different parts of the 
city, some of them having to ride in the street cars from six to 
seven miles, others walking three or four miles to and from 
school. It was stated by the children that many of them had 
taken out work and school certificates before coming to the in- 
dustrial school, and yet, at the end of the second year, out of 
the 143 originally enrolled, 52 still remained, 33 boys and 19 
girls, and of these 49 graduated. The figures show that many 
of the children left school, as was to have been expected, but 
constant additions were made, and the total membership at the 
end of the second year was 146, distributed as follows : in the 
first-year class, 56 boys and 27 girls ; in the second-year class, 
42 boys and 21 girls. The first graduating class numbered 53, 
and of these 19 expected to enter the Technical High School 
and I a regular academic high school. The figures show con- 
clusively that this school has exerted a strong influence in re- 
taining children who would otherwise have become early and 
probably unskilled workers. 

Another result of the school seems to be an awakening of 
real interest on the part of the children, and especially the 



no EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

development of a considerable self-respect and confidence, — a 
confidence which appears to be deserved. They have been given 
things to do which they could do well, and this has had the 
effect of making them more self-reliant in all their work. They 
are able to learn some things without being taught, which is an 
extremely valuable asset for these children who are likely to 
become wage earners at an early age. As an illustration of this, 
the work in printing may be mentioned. In one corner of the 
drawing room is a small equipment for printing, costing per- 
haps one hundred dollars, and this some of the boys have been 
permitted to use. They are self-instructed, having drawn from 
the public library such books as they needed to help them in 
making a beginning. There is no teacher of printing in the 
school, yet the boys have made considerable progress. 

Not the least valuable of these results is the changed attitude 
of the children toward schools and school life in general. They 
have enjoyed their school, and have used it not alone for work 
but for social pleasures. Several plays, for example, have been 
well given. Few pupils think it desirable to leave school, while 
statistics show the extreme eagerness with which children of 
this type usually sever, permanently, their connection with the 
grade school. It seems fair to assume that, even though these 
children must go to work in the near future, they will all the 
more readily and naturally turn to such other educational institu- 
tions as may be open to them, as evening or continuation schools. 
There is thus a hope that they may become permanent students so 
far as study becomes at once necessary, available, and appropriate. 

Quite apart from the benefit of this school to its pupils, is 
its value, as an experiment, to the cause of education in general. 
The value of an experiment is apparent in proportion to the 
fidelity with which it adheres to its avowed purpose. Judged from 
that standpoint, the writer feels that the Elementary Industrial 
School has proved to be extremely useful, and predicts that its 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 1 1 1 

lessons, should the school be continued or multiplied, will be 
studied with interest and profit by students in elementary educa- 
tion throughout the country. 

The school Jias remained constant to its stated principles, as 
we have seen, and it is not criticism of either the principles or 
the practices of the school to note that it differs materially from 
other elementary industrial schools which have been established 
in several cities within the past five years. In fact, the peculiar 
value of this experiment can best be shown by contrasting it 
with others. In most of these schools especial emphasis is placed 
on the industrial nature of the handzvork. A practical and 
commercial product is desired, and all the conditions of the 
production and frequently of its disposition are made to con- 
form as closely as possible to those actually encountered in 
the industrial world. 

It was apparently partially in protest against such practices 
that the Cleveland experiment was undertaken. In an editorial 
in the Manual Ti'aining Magazine for April, 19 lo, Mr. William 
E. Roberts, the supervisor of manual training, said : 

It is the trade school, the continuation school, the elementary industrial 
school with a purely utilitarian purpose, that are being considered and sug- 
gested, rather than the preparation of material which they must use, the 
product of the established elementary schools. The danger lies in dealing 
with industrial education as apart from and added to the school system, in- 
stead of making it an integral part of that system by reorganization. 

Quite consistent with this thought, the handwork of the 
Cleveland elementary industrial school is made a central but a 
cultural factor, while industry, not being the primary end sought, 
is utilized in both the handwork and the book or study work, 
but especially in the latter, as a vitalizing principle. 

That the work of this school is believed to be of value is 
evidenced by the fact that Cleveland has established a second 
elementary industrial school. The purpose of the new school 



112 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

is to try the experiment of relating the industrial work a little 
more closely to the regular school course and especially to the 
regular school organization. 

. The new experiment is conducted in a regular elementary- 
school building centrally located in one of the largest districts 
of the city. The school accommodates, as formerly, all the chil- 
dren of the first five grades in the district, and, in addition, all 
pupils wishing to take the modified course in the sixth, sev- 
enth, and eighth grades, who live within a much larger district, 
including some six or eight neighboring school buildings. I\ipils 
from the central building who wish to take the regular course 
in the higher grades are permitted to go, on request, to one of 
the other elementary schools. Such requests have rarely, if ever, 
been made. 

The work is conducted on the departmental plan, as in the 
Elementary Industrial School ; it is arranged, however, for a 
regular five-hour school day instead of the six-hour day. In the 
seventh and eighth grades three hours each day are given to 
book work on a plan which brings each pupil in contact with 
three different teachers. Two hours each day, in these grades, 
are devoted to some kind of handwork, largely domestic science 
and sewing, with a little free-hand drawing for the girls and 
woodworking, mechanical and free-hand drawing for the boys. 
The children of the sixth grade have but one hour of hand- 
work a day and four hours of book work. 

There are about one hundred and thirty-five pupils in the three 
upper grades. 

It should be noted that the two experiments described above, 
those of Boston and Cleveland, exemplify radically different 
methods of employing the handwork in their attempts to accom- 
plish essentially the same educational purpose. These schools 
should not be confused with those of secondary type, whether 
intermediate or high. 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 113 

Other experiments in the field of prevocational education 
which amply repay study are to be found in Newark, New 
Jersey ; Indianapolis, Indiana ; St, Paul, Minnesota ; Los 
Angeles, California ; Seattle, Washington ; Springfield and 
Evanston, Illinois ; and Fitchburg, Massachusetts. Only a brief 
outline of the work of these schools can be given here. 

Indianapolis, Indiana 

The semi-industrial schools are open to both boys and girls, 
and their courses of study parallel those of grades seven and 
eight. The pupils come mainly from those grades, but a small 
proportion of them are over-aged boys from Grade 6. 

The new course of study has been placed in certain of the 
schools, and in those schools it is not elective but is taken by 
all children in grades seven and eight. On application pupils 
may be transferred to some other school with the traditional 
course, but no such request has ever been made. 

The range of industrial activities is as follows : carpentry, 
joinery, repair work, art metal work, printing and bookbinding, 
sewing, dressmaking, art needle work, weaving, cooking, and 
housekeeping. 

Newark, New Jersey 

The Warren Street School offers a three years' course to 
boys only, and draws its pupils from all parts of the city. 

Pupils may enter at the beginning of the sixth grade, or later 
in the course, regardless of age ; or may be admitted, if four- 
teen years of age or over, from Ipwer grades. Few are actually 
under fourteen. 

The work has a more intensive trade significance than in most 
schools of this type, and the boys appear to be more mature. 

The industrial subjects are carpentry, metal work, pattern mak- 
ing, foundry practice, electrical wiring, printing, and electrical 



114 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

construction. It is expected that all pupils who enter at the 
beginning of the sixth grade will have some work in each of 
the industrial branches offered. 

" The school places its graduates in positions suitable to their 
ability and inclinations. This feature of vocational guidance was 
successfully started in July, 191 1, when seventeen out of twenty- 
one graduates were placed in positions. The remaining gradu- 
ates entered the high school or moved from the city." 

The school is in its third year. 

St, Paul, Minnesota 

The Special Industrial Schools of St. Paul have been in opera- 
tion since 1908, and are open to boys only. These come not 
only from Grades 7 and 8, but, in the case of seriously retarded 
children, from the sixth or even the fifth grade. 

The purpose of the school is to take boys who have little 
prospect of completing the work of the common school, and 
'" give them a sort of finishing course before they go to work." 

A three years' course is offered. Not only does it help the 
boy if he is forced to enter industrial life at an early age, but 
its completion is accepted as preparation for certain courses in 
the high school. A few boys have entered the high school 
through this channel. 

The industrial activity is largely woodworking, but observa- 
tional study of other kinds of work is afforded by carefully 
planned and supervised visits to shops and factories. 

Springfield, Illinois 

The Springfield Vocational School was opened in September, 
191 1, and occupies the upper floor of one of the elementary 
buildings. It comprises two rooms, one of which is equipped with 
desks, seats, and a reading table well supplied with appropriate 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 115 

current magazines. The other contains a small but complete 
plant in which actual printing and bookbinding are done by 
the pupils. The boys are taught printing from the setting of 
type to the operating of the press. They are also taught the 
binding of tablets, pamphlets, and simple books. The teacher 
is a practical printer of considerable experience. The book or 
study work is in charge of an especially competent grade teacher. 
The school is open to boys from any part of the city, thirteen 
years of age or over, who have completed at least the first five 
grades and who are recommended by the principal of the school 
which they attend. The capacity of the school is forty boys. 
The length of the course is not yet determined, but will be at 
least three years. 

EvANSTON, Illinois 

Mr. Walter W. Petit, principal of the Evanston Elementary 
Technical School, which was organized in September, 19 ii, 
writes regarding the purpose of the school as follows : 

Manual training for the boys and domestic science for the girls has 
been given in the upper grades of the elementary schools of Evanston for 
the past ten years. 

The elementary technical school differs, however, from the other schools 
of the city in that half the time is given to industrial work. Pupils from the 
fifth to the eighth grades are enrolled. Their work in the regular subjects 
of the grammar-school course covers but half the school day. 

Articulation with the classical high school of the town is provided for, 
so that while the child is able to secure a grasp of a number of elementary 
industrial processes, he does not find himself in a school in which the ulti- 
mate aim is entirely different from that of the other grammar schools. This 
is necessary in Evanston, for the town is a residence suburb of Chicago 
with practically no industries, and most of the children continue their studies 
in high school. 

The child can be prepared for high school by devoting but half the time 
to academic work, because of the increased interest he has in his school 
work. Self-confidence aroused by the industrial work carries over into 
the academic work and results in better progress. Correlation of academic 



I If) I'.XAMn.l'.S OI' INDUSTKIAI, l-'.l )l KAI'K )N 

and in(his(ii;il siil)jccl,s aids in securing iiilcicsl. Conipaialivt-ly small classes 
with forty iniiuitc periods, a pail of vvliicli is di'vottd lo supervised study, 
probably helps lo account for the increased ai)iiity of the child to master 
his i)ook work. 

There are about one hundred children t-nrolled. None of these have 
been re(|uired lo enter the school, .and so far no child who has enrolled has 
voluntarily left liu- inslilulion. 'I'lie s( liool has admilled as many as it was 
ori^^inally planned lo accommodaU-, and llure aw al i)resenl a number on the 
wailinj;' lisl. 'IbK'c teachers give their enliic time to the academic, and two 
lo the indusliial, work. In addition three other teachers ^ive pari of Iheir 
time to till" industrial woi k of the school. 

Woodwork, cooking, sewing, milliiu>(y, and laundry work arc taught. 
All i)upils (k-voti- from two to eight hours a week to applied art. Under 
this dcpaitmcnt come block printing, stenciling, weaving, metal work, 
bookbinding, ,ind icalhcr work. The school has bcc-n furnishc-cl with a 
])rinling press, and the- ui)pcr grade boys h.we done- eonsicierai)lc- printing. 
This has been ;ucom|)lishcd with practically no su])ervision. 'I'hc seventh 
and eighth grades jirint the programs for the Friday liter.ary exerci.ses, 
advertisements of jiublic Icclurcs and evc-ning classes, K-ttcrheads, and jirae- 
lically all the school work. 

The- i)o\s in the cighlh grade spend cighly mimilcs .1 wc-ck in cooking. 
Such articles of food arc prepared ,is might be .served in cam]) or .it break- 
last al home. Tiiis has iiroved a very popularcour.se with the iioys. 

In the si-venth grade the boys devote two iiours a week for half a year 
(o pri\ssing and ck-aning clothes, iiatching, darning, and sewing on buttons. 
The j'iils of the lillh grade are taui'.ht the- use ol 01 (lin.ir\' woodworking tools. 

When (list pl.mned, the school met with sonu- opposition among the 
more conservative elements. I'liis is. howc-ver, r.ipidh' di,sap|)caiing, and a 
demand will probably come for more industrial work in the other schools 
of the city. 

As yi'l, only .slight c-mpliasis i.s placed on tin- xoialional .si;;- 
lulicaiux' ol the wot k in (his school. 

l-'it'cntun-ic, I\1 AssAcimsi-.TT.s 

AiiothiT .si-hool which olTcrs oppoilunit\- lor dixcM'sihcd work 
in (iradi's 7 and S is Ihr riailiial Ails School, ol" l"'itchburg. 
This school has Ix'cn crcrlcd and c'(inip|)iHl by the slate of Mas- 
saciuisctts U) rnrnish opporUinil\- lor observation and practice 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 117 

to the students at the Fitchburg Normal School, who are pre- 
paring to teach in the upper elementary grades. Pupils from 
any part of Fitchburg who have completed the sixth grade are 
admitted. Four courses are offered, the successful completion 
of any one of which admits the pupil to the high school, where 
he may continue the line of work upon which he has begun, or 
may take a fresh start by electing a different course. 
The four courses are as follows : 

A Commercial Course, 30 hours per week, for those who expect to take 
the commercial course in the high school or business college, or who intend 
to go to work in offices or stores at the end of the grammar grades. 

12^ hours to literature, composition, spelling, penmanship, mathematics, 
geography, history, and science. 

7^ hours to physical training, music, general exercises, and recesses. 

5 hours to bookkeeping, business forms and procedure, business arith- 
metic, and related design. 

5 hours to typewriting and handwork. 

A Literary Course, 30 hours per week, for those who expect to go on 
through the high school and college. 

I z\ hours to literature, composition, spelling, penmanship, mathematics, 
geography, history, and science. 

7i hours to physical training, music, general exercises, and recesses. 

5 hours to a modern language. 

5 hours to drawing, designing, making, and repairing (household arts 
for girls). 

A Manual-Arts Course, 30 hours per week, for those who expect to 
take the industrial course in the high school, or who intend to go to work 
in the trades, the mills, or the factories at the end of the grammar grades. 

1 2^ hours to literature, composition, spelling, penmanship, mathematics, 
geography, history, and science. 

']\ hours to physical training, music, general exercises, and recesses. 

10 hours to drawing, designing, making, and repairing. 

A Household-Arts Course, 30 hours per week, for girls who wish to 
devote a large amount of time to the arts of home-making. 

I z\ hours to literature, composition, spelling, penmanship, mathematics, 
geography, history, and science. 

']\ hours to physical training, music, general exercises, and recesses. 

10 hours to household arts. 



Il8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Some of the forms of work undertaken the first year are as follows : 
Ordinary 7'epairs : 

Faucets in the buildings repacked. 

Schoolroom desks and tables scraped and refinished. 

Setting glass. 

Lawn mowers taken apart, cleaned, oiled, and sharpened. 

Window screens painted. 

Decayed basement floors relaid. 

Broken furniture glued. 

Chairs reseated. 

Rubber pads on the stairs taken up, turned, and retacked. 
Woodworking : 

Workbenches constructed. 

Assisted in making kitchen tables. 

Making teachers' desks for entire building. 

Building partitions and lockers. 
Painting and finishing : 

Steam pipes bronzed to match color of walls. 

Floors oiled. 

Chairs for building bought in the white, finished and seated by pupils. 

Kitchen, dining room, woodworking room, and locker rooms painted. 

Workbenches and teachers' desks finished. 

Library room painted and papered. 
Grading a?id walks : 

Work upon grading, and upon the building of concrete walls and grano- 
lithic walks has just begun. Each boy has plotted the grounds and walks 
and has taken levels under competent direction. 
Typewriting : 

Copying of letters to industrial plants in various towns and cities of 
Massachusetts, asking for material for industrial exhibit. Original letters to 
school children in different parts of New England, telling of Fitchburg in- 
dustries and requesting replies concerning the industries of their cities. 

Copying letters to parents, explaining courses offered. 

Manifolding copies of poems and songs used in seventh and eighth 
grades. 

Copying bills for books, school supplies, and materials used at manual- 
arts school. 

Practice in writing business letters and business forms. 

Typewriting language and spelling lessons. 
Physical culture : 

Personal hygiene. 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 



119 



Social and classical dancing. 

Outdoor and indoor games. 

Corrective work with individuals. 
Household arts : 

The girls have made their needlebooks and work bags, their gymnasium 
suits and the bags to carry them in ; also their caps and aprons for cooking. 
They have hemmed the towels for the kitchen, made covers for 18 type- 
writers, and for 170 bean bags to be used in games in the gymnasium. 
They have repaired the flags for the school building, darned the rug in 
the reception room, and are to make overalls and jumpers for the boys to 
use in painting. They have cleaned the windows in the kitchen, dining 
room, and sewing room ; cleaned all the basins in the new building ; have 
reseated chairs ; and are now beginning their lessons in cooking. 
Applied arts fo7' girls : 

Stenciling of designs upon workbags and needlebooks. 

Designing covers for and binding books and magazines. 

Crocheting table mats for dining room and knitting wash cloths. 

An unusual amount of time, as will be noticed, is given to handwork, 
which takes the form chiefly of typewriting in the commercial course, and 
which in the other courses is devoted to a great variety of useful and nec- 
essary labor. No work is undertaken except in response to a real need. 
The finished work must meet the need adequately, and must be performed 
with dispatch and in a workmanlike manner. Pupils are therefore directed 
not only by teachers but also by skilled journeymen, who work with them. 
Beauty of design, color, and ornament are not neglected. 

The school carries into effect the very latest and best ideas of grammar- 
school instruction by means of differentiated courses, with complete equip- 
ment and adequate teaching force. 

While this volume deals with examples of industrial education 
which are in actual operation, it is perhaps permissible to note 
in this connection an elementary industrial course which has 
been projected for the Chicago public schools. The fact that 
the Chicago Board of Education has recently adopted an 
" industrial course of study for the sixth, seventh, and eighth 
grades " is at least indicative of current discussion and of partial 
conviction on the part of the school authorities. In the Course 
of Study for the Elementary Schools is the following : 



I20 EXAMPLES OE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

INDUSTRIAL COURSE 

The Industrial Course of Study is not offered for general use in the 
elementary schools at the present time. Principals who are satisfied that 
the conditions in their districts are such that at least four divisions in the 
upper three grades can be organized and maintained in the industrial 
courses, should confer with the superintendent of schools. No divisions 
should begin the work without special permission from the superintendent. 

Suggestive Program 

g.oo-g.30. Mathematics 
g. 30-9.40. Music 
9.40-10.20. English 

Penmanship 
Physiology 
10.20-10.35. Recess 
1 0.35- 1 1.05. History and Geography 
Civics 

Chicago Course 
1 1.05-11.30. Study 

Boys Girls 

1. 00-2. 20. Shop Textiles 

Drawing and art 
Bookbinding 
2.30-2.35. Recess Recess 

2.35-3.30. Drawing Cooking 

Design and art Laundering 

Printing Printing 

An examination of the course of study, vvhicli is given in 
some detail, shows that the word '" industrial " as used therein 
has the same content as the term " manual training," and that 
the plan simply contemplates a curtailment or simplification of 
book work and an increase in the amount of time devoted to 
handwork, for its general educative value, and with slight em- 
phasis on its vocational significance. 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 121 

Los Angeles, California 

The Macy Trade School, or the Girls' Vocational School as 
it is soon to be called, might possibly be classified as a separate 
industrial school, and as such be treated in the succeeding 
chapter. But it indicates so well the general movement of the 
Los Angeles school system toward a more rational adjustment 
of school opportunities to the needs and desires of the children 
below the high school, that it is described here. The school is 
a recent addition to the system, and will graduate its first class 
in February, 19 12. Its purpose is to prolong the school life of 
as many of its pupils as possible until the sixteenth year ; to 
awaken an interest in the industrial life of the community and 
to develop a desire to take part in it ; to lay the foundation for 
a trade training ; and to prepare the children to be economically 
valuable to themselves and to society. 

The school is at present open to both sexes, but in September, 
191 2, it is planned to establish a similar one for the boys, 
reserving the present school for girls only. 

Pupils are regularly admitted when fourteen years of age 
and prepared for the seventh grade. These requirements are 
not rigid, however, and may be modified in the case of cliildren 
who are peculiarly qualified to pursue this course to advantage. 
The work practically parallels that of the seventh and eighth 
grades, except that the book work is much simplified and the 
handwork is greatly extended. 

The seventh grade devotes ten hours a week to book work 
and fifteen hours to handwork, while the eighth grade devotes 
fourteen hours to the former and sixteen hours to the latter. 
The subjects studied are arithmetic, English, drawing, geom- 
etry, geography, history, and calisthenics, for both boys and 
girls ; cooking, sewing, and design for the girls, and shop work 
for the boys. 



122 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

On satisfactory completion of two years' work a diploma is 
given, which admits the pupil to the high school. 

The membership of the school at present consists of thirty- 
seven boys and fifty girls. 

The industrial courses for the girls have been more fully 
worked out than those for the boys. A circular listing them 
reads as follows : 



COURSES OFFERED 1912-1913 



Sewing 



Cooking 



English 



Textile Design 



I. 


Simple handwork 


IL 


Underwear 


HI. 


Wash dresses for children 


IV. 


Wash dresses for adults 


V. 


Shirt waists 


VI. 


Fine handwork 


VII. 


Power operation (simple) 


VIII. 


Power operation (advanced) 


IX. 


Dressmaking (simple) 


X. 


Dressmaking (advanced) 


I. 


Plain cooking 


II. 


Advanced cooking 


HI. 


Breakfast and luncheon dishes 


IV. 


Dinner course 


V. 


Home economics 


VI. 


Lunch-room practice 


I. 


Correct English (simple) 


II. 


Correct English (advanced) 


III. 


Oral reading 


IV. 


Spelling and word building 


V. 


Letter writing and dictation 


VI. 


Composition 


VII. 


Literature (selected) 


vni. 


Shakespeare 


I. 


Simple 


II. 


Advanced 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 



123 



Art 



History 



Geography 



Music 



Arithmetic 



1 



L 



I. Free-hand drawing (beginning) 

II. Free-hand drawing (advanced) 

III. Applied design on textiles 

IV. Pottery 

V. Leather work 

VI. Metal work 

I. U. S. history to 1789 

II. U. S. history, 1 789-1912 

III. Social and industrial history 

IV. History of California 

I. Industrial geography 

II. Geography of California 

III. Textiles 

I. Chorus work (unison) 

II. Chorus work (two-part songs) 

III. Chorus work (three-part songs) 

IV. History of music 

I. The four fundamentals 

II. Fractions, decimals, and percentage 

III. Trade-school arithmetic 



Each course covers five recitations weekly for ten weeks and carries one 
credit for completion. Forty credits will entitle a pupil to graduation. 

The school authorities are taking steps to estabhsh a voca- 
tional bureau based on the plans worked out by the Vocation 
Bureau of Boston. Already visits of investigation have been 
made to upwards of seventy-five places employing children, in- 
cluding factories, dressmaking establishments, department stores, 
tailors' shops, commercial houses, etc., for the purpose of ascer- 
taining the vocational possibilities for girls in Los Angeles. 

As noted above, this school is indicative of a general educa- 
tional activity looking to the material improvement of the 
opportunities for those who seem least likely to profit by the 
older and more abstract courses of study. 

At the Castelar Street School a new domestic-science build- 
ing has been erected, the first in the city to be used exclusively 



124 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

for that purpose and in connection with an elementary school. 
It will be used both by the pupils of the regular classes and by 
the after-school classes mentioned below. 

The work given will include much wider application of the 
practical arts for girls than is usually to be observed in the sew- 
ing and cooking classes with which we have become familiar. 
Cooking, sewing, housekeeping, nursing, sanitation, the selec- 
tion and purchasing of foods, and the preparation and serving 
of the school luncheons will be carried on with as large a 
measure of practical utility as possible. 

A plan recently put into operation, which can hardly be con- 
sidered as having a vocational purpose, yet one easily possible 
of extension in that direction, is that of opening the school 
facilities to volunteer classes from three to five o'clock in the 
afternoon, that is to say, for an after-school session. This work 
is carefully supervised by competent teachers, but is intended 
to appeal to the interests and to develop the initiative of the 
children, the teacher directing or guiding, rather than instruct- 
ing and compelling compliance with fixed courses of work or 
rules of discipline. Classes of this type are in successful op- 
eration in nine schools. 

The superintendent, Mr. John H. Francis, has determined 
to adapt the schools of Los Angeles to every possible phase of 
the many-sided life of a growing and cosmopolitan city. 

Seattle, Washington 

In the Northwest considerable progress is being made. It 
should be recalled that, with the opportunities which a compara- 
tively new and rapidly developing country affords, the demand 
for special vocational training is not so insistent. Neverthe- 
less Seattle has taken an advanced position regarding indus- 
trial education and vocational training in the elementary and 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 125 

intermediate fields of education. Special elective courses of the 
prevocational type have been arranged with the expectation of 
meeting more satisfactorily the educational needs of both boys 
and girls during the period of early adolescence. The following 
circular sent to the parents of some of the Seattle public-school 
children will describe the movement. 



THE ELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 

The Board of School Directors of the Seattle public schools have author- 
ized the opening of three industrial schoolrooms or centers. 

The purpose of this circular is to explain the aims, plan, and program of 
such a school, the requirements for admission, its relation to the high school, 
and some of the reasons which have led to its establishment. 

The elementary industrial school is intended to provide a course of study 
relating much more to the industries than the ordinary school program, and 
containing a more practical training for a class of boys and girls in the pub- 
lic schools who are naturally suited by instruction which will the better 
and sooner prepare them for training in a definite vocation. In every school 
there are some boys and girls who prefer studies and exercises that employ 
their hands, and who have greater aptitude in such studies than their fel- 
lows. They advance in their development by what they do rather than by 
what they hear. They are practical-minded. Many such children drop out 
of school as soon as the law permits, not from lack of ability, but because 
the school fails to fit its procedure to their particular needs. The establish- 
ment of these industrial classes is an attempt to fit the school to the wants 
of this class of pupils. Such classes are not substitutes for a trade school, 
but are intended to lead more quickly and surely to apprenticeship in busi- 
ness or trade, while not closing the door to further study either in high or 
special schools, if the pupil desires to pursue such a course. 

The plan provides distinct courses for boys and for girls, and requires 
that those taking such courses be separated from the regular school classes 
in the building. 

The school day, which is the same as for the regular classes, will be di- 
vided into seven periods of forty minutes each, about half of the time to be 
spent upon the ordinary school studies, modified to suit the end aimed at in 
this plan, and the other half to be devoted to the industrial and household 
arts — shop work and mechanical drawing for the boys, and cooking, sew- 
ing, design, and drawing for the girls. 



126 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Outline and Explanation of Industrial Courses 

For Boys For Girls 

English English 

Geography-history Geography-history 

Arithmetic Arithmetic 

Mechanical drawing Drawing and design 

Shop work Sewing 

Cooking 

English will include reading, spelling, penmanship, letter writing, and 
composition. 

Geography will include map studies, climatic conditions and influences, 
industries and products, exports and imports, routes and centers of trade, 
the studies to be correlated as far as practicable with the work in shop 
and kitchen. 

In history there will be a review of the influential events in the develop- 
ment of our country, including particular reference to the country's greatest 
characters and their achievements, and of the causes contributing to our 
present national standing. The purpose will be to give an elementary 
knowledge of the important facts in our history and to imbue with a 
patriotic desire to be serviceable. 

In arithmetic the fundamental operations include fractions applied in 
shop work and in local problems ; percentage and interest ; applications of 
measurements and mensuration. The purpose will be to secure accuracy in 
the use of figures and practice in their application to practical affairs. 

Industrial. The shop instruction will consist of work intended to give 
knowledge of materials and their sources and use ; tools and skill in their 
use ; methods of construction ; problems in machine and hand work'; 
acquaintance with factory and individual production ; the use of preserva- 
tives, as paints, oils, etc. ; discussions of the various vocations ; visits to 
work under construction — to manufacturing and commercial establishments. 

The industrial work for girls will consist of plain sewing, garment 
cutting and fitting, repairing; the study of household linens, fabrics used 
in the home, the sewing machine ; also class talks and discussions regarding 
clothing, hygiene, style, costs, methods of manufacture, the sweatshop, 
trades and vocations for women. Attention is also given to plain cooking, 
properties of foods, economy, table service, sanitation, laundry work, care 
of the home, etc. Actual conditions make possible the purchasing and pre- 
paring of a simple lunch daily and serving the same to other pupils at noon 
at cost. Class talks are given upon related topics of home life and its 



PREVOCATIONAL WORK IN GRADES 6-8 127 

obligations, domestic service, income and expenditure, etc. Applied design is 
taught, including surface decoration as affected by material and service, the 
use of color, problems in making designs for notebook covers, belts, pillows, 
draperies, and the aesthetics of the home. 



The Relation of this Course to the High School 

The rank of this course will correspond to the seventh and eighth grades 
of the usual school course, and will require two years for its completion. 
At the end of the two years pupils completing this course, who choose to 
continue their school work, may enter the high school upon an equal footing 
with the pupils entering from the regular course. 

Requirements for Admission 

This course is open to any boy or girl thirteen years of age or over, who 
has completed the equivalent of the present sixth grade, provided the parent 
or guardian makes a written request upon the form provided for that pur- 
pose, and, further, that the principal of the school last attended by the pupil 
recommends that the pupil should take the industrial course. 

As only three schools can be established at this time, the number of 
pupils will have to be limited to 72 boys and 72 girls. Do you wish to have 

attend one of these schools.-* If so, please sign your name below as 

indicative of your desire to have chosen. 

While differing materially in several important particulars, all 
of the above schools agree in the following fundamentals : 

First. They admit the need of providing a secondary motive 
in education at this critical time in the life of children, and 
believe that this motive is closely associated with vocational 
interests. 

Second. They believe that spending half the time in hand- 
work and half in book work secures a greater and more perma- 
nent development of the pupils' intelligence, particularly for the 
concrete-minded type of children attracted by these schools, than 
is possible where the entire day is devoted to academic study. 
Successful accomplishment is recognized as the best incentive 
to continued effort. 



128 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Third. They do not interpose a barrier between the elemen- 
tary and the high school, but, quite to the contrary, they have 
created a new channel by which it may be reached. 

In commenting on prevocational work, Mr. George A. Mirick,i 
acting superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, says : " This form 
of education will not eliminate all the failures from the schools, 
but it is diminishing their number. For many children school 
has become a place where they have been trained to bear de- 
feat unresistingly. For a growing number of them the elemen- 
tary industrial school has become a place where they are taught 
Jiozv to attain sneeess.'' 

1 Now Deputy Commissioner of Education, New Jersey. 



CHAPTER XI 
THE INTERMEDIATE OR SEPARATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 

While these schools have much in common with the prevoca- 
tional work of the elementary school, there is one considerable 
difference. They do not commonly permit later entry into high 
schools, though the work which they offer sometimes duplicates 
portions of the high-school course. They are intended partic- 
ularly for boys and girls who, having arrived at the age of four- 
teen, find themselves out of harmony with schools and school 
purposes, as they see them, and who would, failing the opportu- 
nity afforded by the industrial school, probably seek immediate 
entry into industrial life. 

They therefore occupy an " intermediate " position between 
the elementary-school work and that of the traditional high 
school. They are in a sense " separate " from both and '' inde- 
pendent " of their domination. In a sense also they are " second- 
ary," if not "high." Each of these words has been used to 
designate this type of school. 

While these schools frequently offer four years of work, it is 
generally conceded that the children entering them are com- 
monly desirous of taking a short-term trade course. The schools 
therefore appeal directly and immediately to the vocational 
interests of their pupils, and build on the vocational motive, 
making it a central and predominant factor in the work of the 
school, thus approximating the reality which attracts so many 
children away from school life. 

Schools of this type have been most needed where traditional 
education is most strongly intrenched and blindly unyielding to 

129 



I30 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



the needs of the majority of the school children. They have 
therefore come into prominence in the older and more con- 
gested sections. 

In some instances where the economic needs of the pupils 
are greatest, the book work is reduced to a minimum, and prep- 
aration for immediate industrial efficiency is made the first and 
most evident consideration. This is notably the case in the 
Manhattan Trade School, New York, which is mentioned later, 
and in the Girls' Trade School of Boston. For this reason such 
schools might be classified as "trade schools," as their names 
would seem to indicate that they should be, but the pm-pose of 
these schools and the fact that they appeal to pupils of the same 
age and possessing the same general characteristics as do other 
intermediate industrial schools seem to warrant the classification 
here made. 

The Rochester Shop School, Rochester, New York 

Perhaps the best example of this type of school is the 
Rochester Shop School, formerly known as the Factory School. 
Its purposes have been clearly defined from the first and its 
methods have been simple and direct. It is, for this reason, 
one of the most interesting and instructive experiments in 
industrial education which the author has ever seen. 

The principal, Mr. Lewis A. Wilson,^ states that the purpose 
of the school is not to teach a trade but to develop in every boy 
initiative, productive power, and a trade character. He believes 
that the " product system," which characterizes the methods of 
the school, is one of the most important and valuable features. 

The following description of the work of the school was 
prepared by Mr. Wilson. 

On December i, igo8, the Rochester Factory School was opened to 
supply a definite need in the city's industrial life. " The previous May the 

1 Now principal of the Albany Vocational Schools, Albany, New York. 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 



131 



state passed a law providing for aid for general industrial and trade schools, 
and Rochester was the first city to take advantage of the new state law. 

The Rochester Factory School has for its aim the training of boys 
along general industrial lines, and in the fundamental principles pertaining 
to certain trades, but does not aim to teach a trade. It does aim to develop 
efficiency and rapidity in execution, so that those who go out with a diploma 
will be better fitted to enter their chosen trade than they would be under 
prevailing conditions. 

When the school was first opened only one course, cabinetmaking, 
was offered. Forty boys were enrolled and two teachers gave the in- 
struction, one in shop work and the other in grade work and drawing. 
This proved so successful that on the following February a course in 
electricity was offered. At this time two more teachers were employed, 
one to give the electrical work and the other to take charge of the grade 
work. The mechanical drawing from this time on was taught by a special 
teacher. By this time the number of boys had increased from forty to 
one hundred. 

From February, 1909, to February, 1910, the school was run on the 
above basis, but it was then discovered that the existing corps of shop 
teachers could not give instruction in all the lines of work desired by the 
boys, and this led to the establishment of two new courses, those in car- 
pentry and plumbing. This necessitated the hiring of two additional shop 
instructors and a principal. In September, 19 10, courses in architectural 
drawing and machine design were added. 

Courses are now offered in cabinetmaking, carpentry, electricity, plumb- 
ing, architectural drawing, and machine design. The length of each course 
is two years, forty weeks a year and thirty hours a week. 

The weekly apportionment of time in each course is as follows : 

Shop work 15 hours 

Shop mathematics 5 hours 

Drawing 5 hours 

English 2I hours 

Industrial history il hours 

Spelling I hour 

' Home work on spelling and shop mathematics is required of all stu- 
dents to the extent of five hours a week. The boys in the electrical 
department are required to spend three hours a week on electrical theory. 
The following table gives a comparison of the time allotment of the 
eighth grade of the regular schools and that of the Rochester Shop School. 



132 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



Rochester Shop School 



Grade Schools, Grade 8 



Shop work . 


. 900 minutes 


Manual training . 


120 minutes 


Arithmetic . 


300 minutes 


Arithmetic . 


250 minutes 


Drawing . 


300 minutes 


Drawing . . . 


60 minutes 


English .... 


1 50 minutes 


Language, grammar 


250 minutes 


Spelling . . . 


60 minutes 


Spelling 


75 minutes 


Industrial history 


90 minutes 


Reading, literature 


I 50 minutes 


Total, 30 


hours 


Writing 

History .... 


75 minutes 
250 minutes 






Civics .... 


85 minutes 






Physical training 


75 minutes 






Music .... 


60 minutes 






General exercises 


25 minutes 



Total, 25 hours 



The school is under the immediate supervision of the Board of Edu- 
cation, and is maintained by funds supplied by the state and the city. It 
is free to any of the boys in the city who are in or above the sixth grade 
and are at least fourteen years of age. 

The organization of the school can be considered nearly ideal, the 
shop teachers having classes of from thirteen to fifteen, and the grade and 
drawing instructors classes of from twenty-five to thirty. 

These teachers, six in number, exclusive of the principal, have been 
selected with reference to their training along both practical and theoretical 
lines, and they have especial qualifications for their work, which they are 
doing most efficiently. There is one teacher each for cabinetmaking, elec- 
trical work, carpentry, and plumbing ; one who teaches drawing, industrial 
history, and geography ; and one who instructs in shop mathematics, Eng- 
lish, and spelling. 

It is the aim of the school to provide conditions resembling those found 
in actual practice, and for this reason the school has more the air of a shop 
than a school. Partly for this reason the sessions are from 8.30 to 1 1 .30 a.m., 
and from I2M. to 3 P.M., the early closing in the afternoon giving oppor- 
tunity for the boys to find outside work and thus prolong their school lives. 

It is not the intention to have any fixed time for graduation, as a boy 
may enter the school at any time during the year and may be graduated as 
soon as he completes the prescribed course. 

Many boys have left the school during the past year, compelled to do 
so in many cases because of the necessity of giving financial aid to their 
parents. The following figures may be interesting : 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 133 

Returned to other schools 25 boys 

Entered classified trade work 30 boys 

Entered unclassified trades 20 boys 

Left the city 7 boys 

Unknown 38 boys 

The number of boys returning to other schools is mainly due to the 
location of the Rochester Shop School. Some returned to the grade schools, 
however, for the purpose of reaching a higher standard before entering 
the practical work. The number of boys working at unclassified trades is 
partly due to the fact that some were too young to be admitted to a trade. 

Following is a detailed description of each department of the school, 
giving the equipment, the outline of work, and typical examples of the 
practical finished product. 

CABINETMAKING DEPARTMENT 
The instruction offered in this department aims to cover the general 
work of the cabinetmaker, with special emphasis on the work required by 
the local industries. The department is a complete little factory, with its 
stock room, assembly room, and finishing room. Each boy is promoted 
according to his ability, but a corresponding high standard is required in 
the supplementary instruction. 

The equipment of the department is as follows : 

Stock Room 

2 No. I American saw benches. 

I No. I American horizontal boring machine. 

I No. il American planer (24"). 

I American band saw (30"). ^ 

I American jointer. 

I Moore belt sanding machine. 

I Holmes swing cut-off saw. 

I thirty-inch grindstone. 

1 filing vice. 

2 motors. 

Assembly Room 

6 six-foot cabinetmakers' benches. 

6 cabinetmakers' tables. 

I set glue coils. 

I seven-pot glue tank. 

4 dozen cabinetmakers' clamps and hand screws. 



134 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Each bench is equipped with the following tools : block plane, jack plane, 
smoothing plane, |" chisel, |" chisel, 4^" square, 9" square, gauge, hammer, 
nail set, knife, awl, mallet, hacksaw, 3" saw driver, 9" screw driver, bevel, 
brace, half-round file, oil stove, oil can, and counter brush. 

Finishing Room 
2 cabinetmakers' benches with same equipment as in assembly room. 
I fitting table. Varnishes. 

I staining table. Shellacs. 

Stain and varnish pots. Brushes. 

Stains. Upholstery supplies and equipment. 

Outline of Work 

Assembly room. Names and uses of tools with instructions as to their 
handling and care. Preparation of glue, preparation of joints, "gluing up" 
of joints, methods of assembling furniture, preparations for assembling 
furniture, assembling of furniture, " cleaning-up " of furniture, inspection 
of furniture, filing and setting of saws, sharpening of scrapers and chisels. 
Lectures on glue, nails, clamps, screws, dowels, woods, grades and kinds 
of tools, fittings. 

Stock roo7H. " Getting out " rough stock, work on cut-off saw, saw and 
band saw, jointing of material, planing of material, making of machine 
joints, setting up of machines, care of motors. 

Lectures on general care of machines, kinds of machines, machine joints, 
matching of lumber, grading of material, arrangement of machines, shop 
methods, shafting, belting, care of motors, sandpaper, speed of machines. 

FiiiisJiing room. Fitting of furniture locks and fixtures ; shellacking, 
staining, varnishing, rubbing, upholstering, making stains and wax. 

Lectures on care of brushes, stains, shellacs, varnishes, fillers, alcohol, 
benzine, turpentine, rotten and pumice stone, fittings, preparation of woods, 
kinds of finishes, upholstering material. 

Product manufactured during the past two years : 
260 bookcases. 62 sawhorses. 

18 kindergarten tables. 25 bench rests. 

32 saw boxes. 100 drawing kits. 

25 drawing tables. 200 primary looms. 

1 2 sewing boxes. 50 large looms. 

100 toy knitters. 15 "special orders." 

120 chairs. 12 costumers. 

24 flat-top desks. 36 manual-training benches. 

I dining-room table (sample). i buffet (sample). 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 135 

Every article manufactured by the Shop School must be something 
needed in the public schools and which the Board of Education would other- 
wise purchase, and must have an educational value. The education of the 
boy comes first, the product is secondary. All the product is " run through" 
in lots of six, with time and stock cards. 

» 

ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT 

The work in this department aims to cover a general course in all 
branches of electrical work. The boys do all the repair work on the bells, 
telephones, gongs, motors, and lights in the public schools. 

The equipment in this department is as follows : 

I Jacobson gas engine (5 horse power). 

I Rochester Electric Motor Co. D. C. generator (2 k. w.). 

I Rochester Electric Motor Co. D. C. motor (2 h. p.). 

I Westinghouse A. C. 3-phase motor (5 h. p.). 

I Elbridge Electric Co. generator (i k. w.). 

I set castings for D. C. motor (2 h. p.). 

I hot-air engine. 

I Westinghouse induction motor (5 h. p., 220 volts). 

1 Wagner Electric Co. single-phase motor (5 h. p.). 

2 General Electric arc lights. 
I telephone exchange board. 
I pair standard scales. 
Voltmeter and ammeter. 

19 shop benches. 

Each bench is equipped with the following : fine file, medium file, 
coarse file, file brush, small screw driver, large screw driver, pliers, i " cold 
'chisel, -|" cold chisel, i" cold chisel, calipers, scrapers, 5" steel square, large 
claw hammer, machinist's hammer, tinsmith's hammer, 2' ruler and wrenches. 

The tool room contains many extra tools, such as breast drills, hand 
drills, feeling bits, bench drills, large and small tap wrenches, large stock, 
medium stock, and small stock, dies and taps, coil winder, splicing clamps, 
countersinks and braces, snips, large hand drill, etc. 

Outline of Work 

Mechanical woj'k. Chipping, filing, bending, squaring, drilling, counter- 
sinking, surfacing, polishing. This work is done in the manufacturing of 
products needed in the Shop School, such as pulley supports and guides for 
bookcases, conduit and pipe straps, girder clamps, and bench stops. 



136 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Sheet-metal work such as the making of zinc plates for wet cells, win- 
dow plant boxes, cut-out boxes, waste and ash cans, motor hoods. This 
work includes the development of surfaces, use of gutter tongs, tap and die 
work, soldering, and reenforcing. 

The making of wet, crowfoot, chloride, and dry cells, manufacture of tele- 
phone and telegraph instruments. 

Lectures on care of tools, metals, mechanical and chemical mixture of 
cells, plumber's furnace, blow torch. 

Stripping and splicing of wires by the use of pliers, splicing clamps, 
blow torch, soldering iron, solder and flux, taping of joints and splices with 
rubber and friction tape. 

Wiring of the following systems and circuits : series, parallel, shunt, 
series parallel and parallel series, opened and closed circuits, grounded cir- 
cuits. Installing and testing of bells, annunciators, buzzers, fire alarms, 
door openers, telephones, telegraph instruments, messenger call boxes, gas 
lights, etc., and their circuits. 

Lighting circuiis. Installation of lighting circuits involving the follow- 
ing : knob, cleat, molding, conduit work, two- or three-wire circuits, direct 
and alternating circuits, single and double pole, three-way and four-way 
switches, panel boards and cabinets, fixtures, balancing of circuits, carbon 
and metal filament lights, tantalum and tungsten lights, arc lights, meters. 

All the work in the wiring is designed first in the shop and worked out 
there and tested. This work is done under the rules of the National Board 
of Underwriters. 

Lectures on static electricity. Induced charges, electroscopes, attraction 
and repulsion, potential difference, friction machines, and induction machines. 

Circuit electricity. Electric current, pressure, capacity, condensers. Ley- 
den jars. 

Electrical cells. The simple cell, voltaic cell, volta pile, polarization and 
depolarization, open and closed circuit cells, bichromate cells, Bunsen chlo- 
ride, Le Clanche, Daniell, gravity, and dry cell. 

Sto7'age batteries. Description of the various types of storage batteries. 
Installation and care of the various types of storage batteries. 

Electrolysis. Electrolytic conductors and cells, chemical actions, and ap- 
plication of Faraday's laws. Theory of electrolysis. 

Magnetism. Natural and artificial magnets, compass and dip needles, 
magnetic induction, distribution of magnetism, magnetic fields, lines of force, 
magnetomotive force. 

Electric current and circuits. Ampere, volt, ohm. Ohm's Law. Deter- 
mination of the resistance of wire, series, parallel, series parallel, parallel 
series, shunt circuits. 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 137 

Poivei' work. Installing, repairing, testing, and care of D. C. series-, 
shunt-, and compound-wound generators and motors. Shop tests on above 
as to heat on full and over load. Power-consumption and efificiency tests, 
indicated and brake horse-power tests, voltage and speed tests. Dissembling 
and reassembling of all the above machines. The winding of fields and 
armatures. 

Gas-engine p7'actice and tests. Power and efficiency. Indicated and 
brake tests for horse power. Dissembling and reassembling of parts of 
engine, care of engine, etc. 

Installing, repairing, testing, and care of A. C. generators and rotary con- 
verters. Single-, two-, and three-phase types. Induction and synchronous 
motors with their starting devices. Installing of transformers and oil 
switches. 

Comparison of alternating and direct currents, frequency, phase, course 
of current, pressure, self-induction, lag of alternating current, application of 
Ohm's Law, testing, heating and chemical effects of alternating current, 
power and power factor, effective current and pressures. 

Design and manufacture of synchronous motors, induction motor, rotary 
converters, arcs and incandescents, and electric power plants. 

Electrical energy. Electromagnetism, electromagnetic induction, gal- 
vanometers and voltmeters, measurement of electrical resistance. Measure- 
ment of current and pressure, measurement of capacity, direct-current 
dynamos and motors, shop methods. 

The electrical department has charge of the repairing of the bells, tele- 
phones, gongs, batteries, and lighting systems of the public schools of the 
city ; also the installing of new work. This affords an opportunity for the 
boys to secure practical experience under ideal conditions. 

The following are examples of the repair work done : 

September 19, 1910, School 15 — Repairing telephones. 

September 27, 1910, School 33 — Repairing fire gongs and telephones. 

October 5, 1910, E. H. S. — Repairing motor. 

October 19, 1910, School 26 — Installing 5 h. p. motor. 

October 24, 1910, School 4 — Repairing Hghts in manual-training room. 

November 15, 1910, School 5 — Installing stereopticon lantern. 

PLUMBING DEPARTMENT 

The instruction in this department is designed to give the boy a clear 
insight into the plumbing trade. Students work from their own blue prints 
and designs made in the drawing room, and a high standard of work is 
required in their supplementary instruction. 



1 2,8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

The equipment of the department is as follows : 

3 work tables for joint wiping. 

I large bench for pipe cutting and tap and die work. 

1 Ryder pumping engine. 

3 gas solder-melting furnaces (complete). 

2 No. 32 gasoline torches. 
I large pipe vise. 

I machinist's vise. 

I No. I set common stock and dies. 

1 No. 3 set Armstrong pipe and dies. 

2 No. I Saunders pipe cutters. 
I No. 2 Saunders pipe cutters. 

I No. I Barnes-Saunders pipe cutters. 

12 sets of the following tools: 12" rasp, 12" coarse file, turn pin, oval 
shave hook, tap borer, soil cup, soil brush, 6" compass, bending pin, 10" 
gas pliers, hammer, dresser, ladle, large and small wiping cloths, and 
copper bits. 

Following general tools : yarning irons, calking irons, joint runner, 
ladles, bending springs, drift plugs,Stillson pipe wrenches,Warnock wrenches, 
burner pliers, comb pliers, flat-nose pliers, hack saws, steel squares, Diss- 
ton saws, ratchet brace, set of bits, expansion bit, levels, plumb bobs, screw 
drivers, heavy hammers. 

Stock of sinks, bath tubs, basins, closet combinations, boilers, traps, ells, 
tees, unions, nipples, couplings, and all common and special fittings. 

Outline of Work 

Pipes and fittings. The cutting and threading of wrought-iron pipe and 
making use of the proper size and kinds of fittings in assembling same for 
simple water- and gas-supply systems. 

Cutting cast-iron soil pipe, and yarning, pouring, and calking joints. The 
proper supporting and fastening of cast-iron and lead pipes. 

Phiinber^s fiirfiace. Care and operation of the plumber's furnace and 
blowtorch. 

Copper bit work. Tinning of soldering irons. Preparing and making 
the following seams and joints : butt seam, bead or V-seam, lap seam, cup 
joint, beaded joint, overcast joint. 

The using of flux in soldering lead, tin, brass, copper, iron, galvanized 
iron, and zinc. 

The proportions and melting points of strip solder. 

Wiping solder, wiping cloths, joint wiping. 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 139 

Testing of proportions and melting points of wiping solder. 

Purifying and keeping solder in good condition. 

The folding and preparation of moleskin and ticking wiping cloths. 

Preparing and making the following wiped joints : |" and li" horizontal 
round joint, |" and li" upright round joint, |" horizontal and upright 
branch joint, i i" floor flange. 

Wiping joint on -|" lead and soldering nipple. 

Wiping joint on il" lead and soldering nipple. 

Wiping joint on 2." lead and brass ferrule. 

Wiping joint on 4" two-bend and brass ferrule. 

Wrapping wall flange. 

Water supply and distribution. Running cold- and hot-water supply 
to kitchen, laundry, and bathroom, including regular range boiler connec- 
tions. Setting up and connecting a kitchen sink. 

Lectures. Use and care of tools, solder and fluxes, wiping cloths, joints 
and their use, study of local plumber's rules and regulations. 

Elementary plumber's physics. Study of questions and answers. 

Installing of plumbing. Installing a complete drainage, ventilation, and 
hot- and cold-water-supply system, including the setting-up and connecting 
of laundry trays, sink, refrigerator, closet, bath, and lavatory. 

Tests. Applying the water, air, smoke, and peppermint tests. ^ 

Hot-water circulation and tank-pressure sy steins. The changing of the 
above water-supply system to a circulating system with tank pressure and 
connections for furnace and instantaneous water heater. 

Setting up and connecting other fixtures and appliances as follows : 
shower bath, sitz bath, urinal, anti-freezing closets, slop sinks, pantry 
sinks, drinking fountains, gas logs, instantaneous water heaters, force pumps, 
water lifts, and Ryder pumping engine. 

Lectures. Drainage, ventilation, and water-supply systems ; anti-siphon 
and vented traps; direct, tank, and pneumatic-pressure systems; boiler 
connections, windmills, pumps and water lifts ; disposal of sewage ; special 
fixtures and appliances, estimating specifications, costs, shop reports, 
plumber's rules and regulations. 

This department has charge of the plumbing repair work in the public 
schools of the city, and the following are examples of the work done : 

September 21, 19 10, School 18 — Repairing closet tank and automatic 
tilting tank. 

September 23, 1910, School 13 — Repairing broken water pipes. 

September 28, 1910, School 8 — Repairing leak in closet tank. 

September 30, 1910, School 4 — Repairing leak in flush pipe. 

October 7, 1910, West High — Connecting of gas plate. 



140 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



November 7, 1910, School i i — Repairing sanitary drinking fountain. 
November 9, 1910, School 24 — Installing basin bowl and repairing 
basin cocks. 

November 10, 1910, School 25 — Removing stoppage in basin waste. 

CARPENTRY DEPARTMENT 

The work in this department aims to give the boys a thorough foundation 
in all woodworking processes. A considerable part of the time is devoted 
to repair work in the public schools under the guidance of the instructor. 

The equipment of this department is as follows : 1 3 six-foot benches 
each equipped with the following tools : cut-off saw, hacksaw, hammer, 
gauge, steel square, large try-square, small try-square, bevel, |" chisel, 
I" chisel, half-round file, block plane, jack plane, jointer, smoothing plane, 
oil can, oilstone, and mallet. 

The special tools are as follows : ripsaws, crosscut saws, universal planes, 
plows, circular planes, large square, levels, rabbet planes, braces, bits, hand 
drills, screw drivers, draw knives, compasses, bars, files, rasps, putty knives, 
spoke shaves, saw set, slip stones, files, and grindstones. 

Outline of Work 

Use and care of the tools. 

Making of lap joints, mortised and tenon joints and dovetailing, appli- 
cation of work in practical shop problems required. 

Work on the roughing-in of an ordinary dwelling. 

Foundation walls and piers. 

Sills (solid and boxed). 

Joists, girders, and lookouts. 

Studding (size, material, and setting). 

Ribbon or girt. 

Plates. 

Rafters (various pitches, valley, hip, and jack rafters). 

Trussing. 

Cornices (parts, styles, and construction). 

Siding and shingling. 

Floors and subfloors. 

Setting of door jambs. 

Base blocks, corner blocks, head blocks, plaster casings, fillets, neck 
moldings, head casings, dust caps. 

Baseboards. 

Plate and chair rails. 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 141 

Simple-stair building. 

Winding-stair building. 

Elementary mill work. 

Lectures. Tools and their care, woods, shop methods, lumber measure- 
ment, glue, nails, screws, bolts, straps, fittings, framing, shoring and under- 
pinning, roofs, stair building, outside work, interior finishing, finishing, paints, 
shellacs and varnishes, woodworking machinery. Thorough study of the 
building ordinances of Rochester. 

Typical examples of repair work : 

February 24, 191 o. School 8 — Building partitions in cellar. 

April 19, 1 910, School 24 — Laying floors. 

May II, 1910, School 25 — Building teachers' lockers. 

May 26, 1 9 10, School 9 — Building supply cupboards. 

September 27, 1910, School 2 — Building porch. 

September 29, 1910, School 19 to School 1 1 — Moving of portable school 
building. 

November 2, 1910, School 25 — Building of storm house. 

DRAWING 

A thorough course in shop drawing, based on the special needs of the 
trade, is given to each student. This work varies according to the product 
and repair work, as the students work from blue prints throughout the 
courses. The instruction is given by lectures, blue prints, and blackboard 
work. The student first makes his drawing on detail paper and it is checked 
by the instructor. He then makes a tracing of his drawing and later a blue 
print, which he takes to the shop. 

The school furnishes a set of mechanical drawing instruments, Tsquare, 
angles, and drawing board. 

SHOP MATHEMATICS 

After a thorough review of arithmetic which proves to the instructor the 
ability of the student, the boy is given a course covering formulas used in his 
shop. The shop problems are prepared by the shop instructors and are in 
direct correlation with the changing work. This work involves arithmetic, 
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. 

INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 

The course in industrial history is taken from Thurston's " Economics 
and Industrial History." 



142 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



English 
The course deals with business forms, shop reports, ordering of material, 
and written reports on factory-inspection trips. 

Spelling 
The words for this course are selected from trade reports, shop reports, 
trade journals, and from general industrial material. 

While the money value of the work of the pupils is a minor 
matter, it is by no means inconsiderable. The following tabular 
statement, covering the work also of a second shop school more 
recently established, serves not only to show the money value 
of the work done, but to give appropriate emphasis to the most 
distinctive characteristic of this interesting school. 

Cost of Rochester Shop Schools 
N January r, 1910-January i, 191 1 







Rochester Shop School 
Lexington Avenue 


Washington 
Shop School 
Clifford Av. 






Departments 






Cabinet 


Carpentry 


Plumbing 


Electrical 


Woodworking 


Totals 


Number of students 
Equipment . . 




25 
$ 267-09 
1775.40 
575-46 
1255.91 
3606.77 
2135.00 
1471.77 


25 

$ 91.88 

1585.40 

575-46 

625.17 

2786.03 

805.60 

1981.03 


25 

$ 146.81 

1585.40 

575-46 

602.69 

2763-55 

455.00 

2308.55 


25 

$ 453-45 

1775-40 

575-46 

675.00 

3025.86 

1207.00 

1818.86 


50 

$ 225-00 

1940.00 

360.10 
2300.10 

36S-00 
1932.10 


150 
$ 1184.23 
8661.60 


General expenses 
Materials . . - 
Totals .... 


2301.84 

3518.87 

14,482.31 


Credits .... 


4970.00 
9512.31 


Net totals . . . 


Cost per pupil . 




58.84 


79-24 


92-34 


72.75 


38-64 


63.41 



The Newton Independent Industrial School 

The reasons advanced for establishing the Newton Independ- 
ent Industrial School are those with which we have now become 
familiar, but in this case they gain peculiar significance. If there 
is a city in the United States which does not need a school of 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 143 

this type, Newton, Massachusetts, a wealthy residential city, 
might safely be said to be the one. 

Ayres's Table 32, showing the percentage of pupils retained 
to the fourth year of the high school in fifty-two cities, places 
Newton at the head of the list, with 38 per cent, its next com- 
petitor being Waltham, Massachusetts, with 29 per cent. This 
remarkable rating is more clearly seen by comparison with a few 
other cities taken from the list ; Cleveland having only i o per 
cent, Baltimore 6 per cent, Chicago 5 per cent, and New York 
3 per cent. This percentage so exceeds that of any other city 
in the country as to place Newton in a class by itself. Notwith- 
standing this fact, the city had just erected a magnificent Tech- 
nical High School building. It would seem to the casual observer 
as if the educational opportunities were all that could reason- 
ably be asked, but the superintendent saw that the Independent 
Industrial School was needed also — a fact since thoroughly 
demonstrated. 

The school was authorized by the city government in January, 
1909. It was opened February i, in one of the grammar-school 
buildings, but was moved in September to its present quarters, a 
six-room building on the corner of Watertown and Bridge Streets. 

There were fifteen pupils and one instructor, and the work 
was such as could be done in one woodworking room and one 
classroom. 

In December two more teachers were added, and the num- 
ber of pupils increased to forty-five. The machine-shop equipment 
was installed in December and January, all of the work being 
done by the pupils. This equipment consisted of a 5 h. p. motor, 
I engine lathe, i speed lathe, i metal planer, and a combina- 
tion woodworking machine. The woodworking equipment was 
an old manual-training outfit borrowed from a Newton school. 
Such was the humble beginning of an extremely valuable ex- 
ample of the separate, or independent, industrial school. 



144 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

The school is open to boys at least fourteen years of age 
who would probably not enter the high school. The courses 
cover three years, and at the beginning devote about one half 
the time to book work and drawing, and one half to shop work. 
As the course advances, the time for shop work is increased. 
A pupil is given an opportunity to try each of several kinds of 
work, until he finds the trade for which he seems best adapted, 
and then is encouraged to specialize in that trade. The work 
offered is carpentry, cabinetmaking and pattern making, machine- 
shop practice, electrical construction, sheet-metal working, and 
printing. 

The courses in the related book work and drawing follow : 

MechaiULal drawing. This course is primarily shop drawing and ma- 
chine sketching. In the latter part of the course the drawing is related 
directly to the trade in which the pupil is si>ecializing. 

MatJieiiiatics. The instruction in arithrtietic, elementary algebra, and 
geometry is intended to give the industrial essentials of mathematics. 
Special emphasis is given to square root, proportion, mensuration, formulas, 
and the use of logarithms. Free use is made of mechanics' and engineers' 
handbooks for formulae and tables. Examples are taken from shop work 
as far as possible. 

English. The purpose of the English instruction is to give facility in 
reading and writing ordei's and business letters, and the taking of shop 
notes ; to develop ability to consult sources of information along mechanical 
lines ; and, as far as possible, to cultivate an appreciation of good literature. 

Commercial geography. Pupils study the sources of the common mate- 
rials, and the economic features of the countries of the world, trade routes, etc. 

Science. The science given is related in a practical way to the shop 
subjects. 

History. This shows the industrial and economic development of man- 
kind from the earliest time to the present, giving special attention to the 
marvelous progress during the last century, and to the industrial history of 
the United States. Biographies of the great leaders in science, invention, 
and commerce are studied and written. 

Government. The history leads to a study of the political conditions 
of the present time, and to some consideration* of the great problems of 
labor and society. 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 145 

The school is committed to the poHcy of turning out a real 
product. As each passing month sees some new practical out- 
come of its work, it is difficult to do entire justice to the ver- 
satility and energy displayed by the school's managers. Some 
of the things which they have accomplished are as follows. 

WORK DONE BY PUPILS SINCE SEPTEMBER 12, 1909 
For the Industrial School 

For the woodworking shop. 4 sawhorses, 3 sandpaper boxes, 1 2 nail 
boxes, rack for bits, 1 2 chisel handles, oilstone shelf, lumber racks ; built 
tool room ; installed lathe, handsaw, and jointer. 

For the machine shop. 40 file handles, i pair of cone centers, i face 
plate, 10 pairs of calipers, 10 riveting hammers, 2 collar arbors, long parallel 
for planer, 6 planer stops, 6 clamps, 12 planer jacks, 12 bench plates, 3 nut 
arbors. Built benches, motor shelf, tool room, cabinet for tool room ; put 
up timbers for shaftings ; rebuilt gas engine (two-cylinder, four-cycle, 1 2 h. p.). 

Patterns made. Gas-forge plate, motor frame, planer jack, lathe attach- 
ment (three patterns), shifter guide for band saw, surface plate, shipper arm, 
face plate, angle irons, bench blocks, driving pulley for motor, lathe dog ; 
gas-engine patterns as follows : valve-rod guide, fly wheel, clutch, thrust 
bearing, starting crank, carburetor inlet ; saw gauge (four patterns) ; com- 
bination punch and shear (four patterns) ; polishing disk ; stakes for sheet 
metal (eight patterns) ; gas forge (three patterns) ; tool stand ; arbor press ; 
grindstone outfit (six patterns) ; tail-vise outfit (five patterns) ; bench lathe 
(twenty patterns) ; bookbinding press (six patterns). 

For the electricity room. 20 individual experimenting cases, 30 spools 
for magnets, 30 square switch bases, 24 round switch bases, 30 square push- 
button cases, 15 round push-button cases, 4 wiring stands, demonstration 
table, box for wire, 4 turned cast-iron cores for magnets. 

For the study room. 2 wastebaskets, finished over 1 2 seats and desks, 
bookshelves. 

For the office. Filing cabinet with 7 drawers, bookshelves, wastebasket. 

For the drawing roo7n. g drawing tables, i blue-print frame, 3 boxes, 
18 ink-bottle stands, 18 drawing boards, 18 T-squares, projection cage, 
wastebasket, large drawing board. 

For the printing room. 4 type-case stands, 7 galleys, imposing table, 
cabinet for galleys and supplies, cabinet for press equipment. 

For moldiftg equipment. 10 two-part flasks, 10 bench rammers, 10 
trowel handles, 30 sprues, 20 vent-wire handles, 10 rapping mallets. 



146 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Fo7- the sJieet-7netal shop. 6 benches for two pupils each, i small bench 
for filing vises, 10 tool racks, 10 boxes for solder, 3 stakeholders of oak, 

3 patterns for hatchet stakes, 2 patterns for square stakes, i pattern for 
bottom stakes, 15 mallets, 10 scratch awls, 11 small hammers, 4 large ham- 
mers, 4 raising hammers, 4 peen hammers, 1 2 file handles, 7 round stakes 
made from gas pipes, three large stakeholders, repairs on old table which 
is used for stake support. 

For the A^ewton Free Library. \ fourfold cabinet screen. 

For the Public Schools 

For the Horace Mann School, i pair jumping stands, i filing cabinet 
with 6 drawers. 

For the Claflin School, i pair jumping stands, i filing cabinet with 6 
drawers. 

For the Hyde School, i sand table ten feet long. 

For the Emerson School, i modeling table, i blackboard stool. 

For the Stearns School. 72 garden stakes, i aquarium. 

For the Teclinical High School. 36 cast-iron bench blocks finished all 
over, I motor pulley (pattern and machine work) . 

Objects made in the tinsmith shop. 6 funnels, 6 pint measures, i quart 
measure, i tank for paintbrushes, covered table for printing room with 
sheet zinc, 2 templates for punching notebook sheets. 

Printing jobs done for the School Department since February 20, igii. 
600 job cards; 300 machine job lists, 8i" x 11"; 3500 circular letters, 

4 pages, 9" X 12"; 1000 grammar-school graduates' certification blanks, 
8i" X 1 1"; 800 catalogues of grammar-school textbooks, 18 pages ; 300 cata- 
logues of high-school textbooks, 1 3 pages ; 200 combination of last two, 

31 pages; 6000 school-report circulars, 6" x 9"; 800 rules and regulations, 

32 pages ; 1 300 graduation programs for high school, 1 2 pages ; 1000 manila 
envelopes, 7" x loi"; 500 garden-inspection cards. For this work the Indus- 
trial School has been credited over $300 by the school department. 

The work in printing was originally established on account 
of its educational value, but it rapidly assumed a vocational 
importance in the school, and now, with a practical printer in 
charge, forms one of the departments. The school prints a 
small paper called Industry, and the following quotations from 
it, written by pupils, are given partly for the information which 
they contain and partly because they illustrate the work. 



INDUSTRY 

Published by the Pupils of the 

Newton Independent Industrial School 
Newton, Massachusetts 



Volume I MARCH, 1911 Number 3 

Two Years of Work 

Our School is now in the third year of its existence. The two 
years already spent have been years of steady, vigorous growth and 
development. From our beginning in a spare room in the Stearns 
Grammar School, with the use of the traditional manual-training 
equipment, we now have a whole building with machine shop, pattern 
shop, tin shop, printing office, drafting room, and assembly room. 
The one teacher who met the dass on that cold morning the first 
day of February two years ago, is now assisted by three other men, 
all of whom are thorough mechanics in their respective trades. The 
number of pupils has increased from fifteen to fifty-five, with several 
applicants waiting for admission. 

One aim of this school was to keep in school as many as possible 
of the large number of boys who leave at the age of fourteen or 
fifteen to go to work. Our success in this respect is apparent from 
the fact that ten of the original fifteen boys are still with us, while 
one is in the Technical High School and another in the Classical 
High School. This makes a loss to the school system of only twenty 
per cent in two years — a remarkable record when we consider 
that if it had not been for the Industrial School, hardly twenty 
per cent of this number would now be in school at all. Moreover, 
every boy in the advanced class has definitely chosen his trade and 
is specializing in it — five in pattern making, two in electricity, and 
the rest in machine work. 

Our third year begins with greater promise than ever. The new 
instructor and new equipment for printing, the installation of the 
sheet-metal equipment, new machinery in the wood shop, and in- 
creased facilities in the machine shop, all make possible better work 
and greater opportunity for each pupil in the school. 

147 



148 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

OUR SHEET-METAL SHOP EQUIPMENT 
George L. Vend 

The greater part of the equipment in the sheet-metal department has 
been made by the pupils, who have thus gained valuable experience and 
also saved the school considerable expense. The equipment was made in 
two departments of the school, the woodworking department and the ma- 
chine department. In the woodworking department there were made five 
benches, one stock table, twelve riveting-hammer handles, twelve mallets, 
twelve tool racks, twelve awls, six boxes for miscellaneous work, patterns for 
one anvil, and six different stakes. The following were made in the machine 
department : twelve riveting hammers, twelve tinsmith hammers, and twenty- 
four punches. The gas piping was also done by the machinists. The equip- 
ment purchased by the school consists of six gas forges, twelve soldering 
irons, and two machines for sheet-metal forging. 

This department is now in complete working order. Two boys can work 
at each bench and are provided with all the tools needed. The boys taking 
up sheet metal have worked very hard in getting the equipment in place 
and preparing this shop for work. Mr. Froling, our drafting teacher, has 
charge of this department. 

WIRING FOR ELECTRIC LIGHTS 
James Fell 

We were greatly in need of more light in our building, and the fact that 
the boys were taking up electricity here and had an instructor that under- 
stood this science made it seem unnecessary to hire a contractor to do the 
job when we could do it just as well. We began the work of wiring, and, 
with the instruction of our teacher, have learned something that will be val- 
uable to us when we start working at our trade. 

An entertainment was to be held at the Technical High School on the 
evening of March 24. This necessitated more light in order that the pupils 
there could work. We got along so well with the wiring in our own school 
that we were sent to the Technical High School to do this temporary wiring. 

CERTIFICATES AND DIPLOMAS FROM THE 
INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 

Superintendent Spaulding recently visited our school and made an- 
nouncements regarding the matter of certificates and diplomas for Industrial 
School pupils. 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 149 

Any pupil who has completed the sixth grade in the grammar school and 
does two years of satisfactory work in the Industrial School will be given 
the regular grammar-school diploma from the school from which he came, 
the two years here being regarded as the equivalent of the seventh and 
eighth grades in the grammar school. Upon completing the three years' 
course here, the pupil is given a certificate stating this fact and indicating 
the trade in which he has specialized. In order to secure the final diploma 
from the Industrial School, it will be necessary for him to work for a year in 
a shop approved by the school, during which time he shall send in weekly 
written reports to the school, describing the progress of his shop work, 
wages received, etc. If the year's work has been satisfactory to the employer, 
the diploma will be granted. 

The Manhattan Trade School, New York City ^ 

This trade school for girls is now a part of the public-school 
system of New York City. Its early history as a privately sup- 
ported institution is of absorbing interest, and has been tersely 
written by Mrs. Mary Schenck Woolman, in her book entitled 
"The Making of a Trade School." In this volume she gives 
an interesting account of the first experiment in the United 
States to deal in an adequate way with the problem of furnishing 
vocational training and guidance to children destined to enter 
industrial life, otherwise wholly unprepared, at the earliest 
possible age. 

The aim of the school is frankly stated to be the giving of 
help to the youngest wage earners, but its ideals are of consid- 
erable breadth. They are to demonstrate to the community what 
education is needed for " the lowest rank of women workers" 
in order that a girl may become self-supporting and adaptable, 
"understand her relation to her employer, to her fellow workers, 
and to her product," and value health and moral and intellectual 
development. 

The necessity for this effort was found in the unfortunate 
social and economic conditions, and especially in the lack of 

1 See p. 130. 



I50 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

opportunity for progressive work. "After several years spent 
in the market ' ' the girl was found to be little better off than 
on her entrance into industrial life. 

After investigation, trades were selected in which are used 
the sewing machine (foot and electric power), the paintbrush, 
paste brush, and needle. In organizing instruction all unneces- 
sary waste was eliminated ; short, intensive courses were planned 
to give knowledge and skill in the technical aspects of the 
selected trade, and to develop mental alertness on the part of the 
worker. It has been observed that " the academic dullness which 
is shown at entrance comes frequently from lack of motive in 
former studies." The fundamental importance of health and the 
value of trade art as a help to progress are given special emphasis. 

The supreme value of the school's trade-order business, as an 
educational asset, is shown in the following quotation: "It pro- 
vides the student with adequate experience on classes of material 
used in the best workrooms ; these girls could not purchase such 
materials and the school could not afford to buy them for prac- 
tice. The ordinary conditions in both the wholesale and the 
custom trade are thus made a fundamental part of instruction. 
Reality of this kind helps the supervisor to judge the product 
from its trade value, and the teaching from the kind of workers 
turned out. Through the business relation the student quickly 
feels the necessity of good finish, rapid work, and responsibility 
to deliver on time. The businesslike appearance of the shop at 
work on the orders, and the experience trade has had with the 
product, have increased the confidence of employers of labor in 
the ability of the school to train practical workers for the trades. 
. . . The business organization and management required in 
the adequate conduct of a large order department can itself be 
utilized for educational purposes." 

A chapter devoted to representative problems makes an 
illuminating analysis of the difficulties which must be met and 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 151 

solved by those organizing schools for workers in the lower 
grades of industry. While the instruction must be direct and 
specific, some preliminary general training is needed, and work 
intended to awaken vocational interests should also be provided. 
Mrs. Woolman believes that all this might and should be given 
in the public elementary school. Other difficulties are the keep- 
ing of the school organization flexible and sensitive to ever- 
changing trade conditions, and in " close contact with industrial 
and social organizations of workers in settlements, clubs, societies, 
and unions, that all phases of the wage earner's life — pleasures, 
aims, and needs — may be appreciated." There is the difficulty of 
securing suitable teachers, and of working in harmony with the 
ideals of organized labor. 

The present quarters and equipment of the Manhattan Trade 
School represent an investment of about ^200,000. 

Mrs. Woolman's book is condensed experience, and, as such, 
is an epitome of the present movement for vocational education. 
This experience has had great influence on the organization and 
methods of the new industrial schools of the country, and the 
principles for which it has stood from the beginning have gained 
wide acceptance during the last three years. 

The Secondary Industrial School, Columbus, Georgia 

This was the first school of its kind in the United States to be 
established as a part of the public-school system and supported by 
public funds. It was established in 1906, and offers courses in the 
mechanic arts, textile arts, domestic arts, and business training. 

While its name would seem to indicate that it might be 
classed as a technical high school, an examination of its entrance 
requirements and courses of study will show that, though '' sec- 
ondary," it is not conventionally a "high" school. The gradu- 
ates, however, are admitted to the technological schools of 
Georgia and Alabama on extremely favorable terms. 



152 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

A report of the public schools of Columbus for 19 lo states the 
aim and the scope of the Secondary Industrial School as follows : 

THE AIM 

The aim of the Secondary Industrial School is to prepare the youth of 
Columbus and vicinity for intelligent and efficient service, and for good 
earning power in business life or the more important industries. 

It is a trade school, and more ; it is an academic-trade school of high- 
school rank. This means that the essentials of a high-school course are 
given and a trade is taught. Under the head of essentials are included the 
usual high-school studies in mathematics, English, history, and science. 
No foreign languages are taught. There has never been any intention of 
teaching young people a trade without good academic training. The aim 
of the school is to give that culture, intelligence, and mental acumen that 
carries the skilled mechanic on to unlimited earning power. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMIS.SION 

Applicants for admission to the Secondary Industrial School must be at 
least fourteen years of age, and must have completed our sixth grade or 
hqve reached a degree of advancement equal to this. 

The school is free to boys and girls of the city of Columbus, and open 
to any others upon the payment of a tuition fee. All students are charged 
$5.00 a term for books, supplies, and working materials. In addition to 
this fee, nonresident students pay $15.00 per term. • 

The school desires only such students as have a definite purpose to re- 
main throughout the three-year course, complete the work, and receive a 
diploma from the school. 

The school is in session from 8 A. M. to 4 p. m. The session begins the 
first Monday in September and ends the second Friday in July. 

The apportionment of time among the several subjects of 
instruction is as follows : 

First Yf a r 45-minute periods 

riKSi ytAK per week 

English grammar and classics 5 

Arithmetic 5 

Elementary physics 5 

United States history, elementary algebra, 1 year each 5 

20 
Industrial work 21 



THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 153 

Second Year 

Rhetoric and classics . 5 

Algebra and geometry ^ 

Elementary chemistry 5 

Civics, history of western Europe, 1 year each 5 

20 
Industrial work 20 

Third Year 

Advanced English, literature and classics, i year ; physics, 1 year . 5 

Solid geometry and trigonometry 5 

Chemistry 5 

History of western Europe, economics, i year each 5 

20 
Industrial work 22 

The courses are conducted by a principal and five assistants. 
The principal, Mr. C. A. Maupin, states that the school is grow- 
ing steadily in popularity, the attendance having increased jG per 
cent in 19 11, and the number of graduates having doubled. 

A commercial product is turned out, and the closest rela- 
tions are maintained between the school and the business and 
industrial interests of the community. One interesting illustra- 
tion of this feature is given by Mr. Maupin. He says : 

The graduating class is given its final examination two months before 
the close of school, and the various members are sent out to positions in 
their particular lines, and required to work until graduation night, reports 
being received from their employers in regard to their efficiency, punctu- 
ality, and application to business. 

The school has the assistance of an advisory committee. 

Other schools of this type which will repay study are the 
Albany Vocational Schools, the New York City Vocational 
School for Boys, the Girls' Trade School and the Boys' 
Trade School, both of Boston, and the five vocational schools 
of Buffalo. 



CHAPTER XII 
VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS 

Vocational high schools differ from the types previously de- 
scribed because they require, as a foundation, the complete train- 
ing of the elementary school/ and because they plan to give a 
broader and perhaps a more thorough preparation for industrial 
pursuits. While carefully adapting the work to the needs of 
those who can spend but two years in the high school, a four- 
year course is offered and very commonly followed by the pupils. 

Practices vary, but in the larger cities the tendency is in the 
direction of maintaining separate vocational high schools, as the 
Stuyvesant High School, New York City ; the High School of 
Commerce (for boys) and the Practical Arts High School (for 
girls), Boston ; the Technical High School and the Commercial 
High School (for both boys and girls), Cleveland ; and the Lane 
Technical High School (for boys), Chicago. In the smaller cities 
of the Middle West the so-called "cosmopolitan high school " is 
strongly supported as superior to the separate vocational school, 
and, in fact, is much more appropriate to the local conditions. 

The work in the several schools of this type, now well estab- 
lished, is so diversified that a full description of it would exceed 
the limits of the plan of this volume. It varies from instruction in 
machine-shop and foundry practice, cabinetmaking, pattern mak- 
ing, the building trades, and electrical work, to home making 

1 It is to be noted that exceptions have appeared to this, the general rule, 
and it is beheved that, before long, many high schools will throw open individ- 
ual courses to those who, having arrived at suitable age and having ability to 
follow these courses, yet fall short of the completion of the entire. elementary- 
school program. 

154 



VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS 155 

and housekeeping, domestic science and art, and the designing 
and executing of the artistic products of the needleworker and 
the costume designer. 

It is to be regretted that our illustrative school does not in- 
clude work for girls, but it is believed that the principles in- 
volved are capable of wide, if not universal, application. It may 
also be stated in passing that the High School of Practical Arts, 
Boston, a high school for girls only, presents in many respects 
a parallel case. While enjoying the advantages of some special 
legislation, it is, nevertheless, a genuine high school which has 
succeeded wonderfully well in meeting the individual needs of 
all of its pupils. A thorough study of this school is advised for 
all who are interested in the vocational education of women. 

The Albert G. Lane Technical High School, Chicago 
This school is essentially a manual-training high school for 
boys. As such, it may seem to be less appropriately used as an 
illustration of the type of vocationalized high school, which has 
been advocated in the foregoing chapters, than some school 
which differs materially from the traditional high school in im- 
portant particulars of its organization and management. 

It is partly because the " Lane Tech," as it is locally known, 
enjoys few if any advantages over other high schools in the 
country, — advantages of special legislation exempting from pre- 
scribed courses of study and other inflexible requirements, — and 
yet has succeeded in differentiating itself from the rest, by the 
spirit in which it has carried out these requirements, that this 
school is selected as an illustrative example. 

For the sake of clearness let us note briefly, and by way of 
contrast, the superior conditions under which the Cleveland 
Technical High School, for example, works. This school was 
established on recommendation of a special commission repre- 
senting the commercial and manufacturing interests of the 



156 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

community. It has the assistance of an advisory committee 
representative of these interests, thus giving the school a vital 
connection with the commercial and industrial world. As a 
result it has a longer school day, the possibility of a longer 
school year for pupils desiring it, and special opportunities for 
intensive vocational work in the last year, including twenty-five 
hours a week permitted for specific trade work. 

The Lane Technical High School has been given none of 
these special advantages. So far as courses of study, length of 
day or year, or submission to fixed scholastic standards are con- 
cerned, its plan is identical with that of the typical manual- 
training high school. Yet it has been made to serve the needs 
of the pupils so well that it stands out distinctly as belonging 
to the new type of "differentiated " or "motivated " high schools. 

The Albert G. Lane Technical High School is an extremely 
large school, numbering from 1 500 to 1650 pupils. It is housed 
in a building constructed to accommodate 1 200 and first occupied 
in 1908, when the Hoyne School, organized in 1905, was trans- 
ferred to the new building, the name of the school being 
changed within a year to that which it now bears. The building, 
land, and equipment cost nearly a million dollars, and the ap- 
pointments are as complete as could well be expected in view 
of the rapidly changing ideas regarding technical and industrial 
training in high schools. That this enormous and expensive 
plant is administered with economy is shown by the relatively 
low per capita cost of about $8 1 .00 a year. 

In 1 908 -1 909 and 1909- 19 10 the Lane School offered the 
usual four-year manual-training course to the boys of the district. 
From the beginning, however, and this marks the distinguishing 
characteristic of the school, the work in each subject was so re- 
organized and was made so thoroughly " practical " that the boy 
who was forced to leave at the end of the first or second year 
might do so with the conviction that he had accomplished 



VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS 157 

something of definite use to himself in a vocational way. At all 
events, the interests and efforts of the teachers and of the school 
in general were not centered on the preparation of the few who 
were to graduate four years hence. The needs of these boys 
were not overlooked or minimized, but the equal rights of the 
others were never forgotten. It was felt that preparation might 
be combined with accomplishment ; that, in fact, tangible and 
definite accomplishment to-day was not only good in itself, but 
that it served as the very best preparation for the progress of 
to-morrow. 

It seemed to the writer that here was the secret of the won- 
derful success of the school, the shifting of interest from the 
possible future graduate to the boy present in the school to-day ; 
from preparation for some more or less distant attainment to the 
accomplishment of some present and immediately useful work. 

As one passes through the school, realizing that tradition and 
the natural conservatism of teachers must have been as strong 
here as elsewhere, the wonder grows at the influence which has 
changed all this to the spirit of optimistic confidence felt every- 
where in the school. Teachers and boys alike express confidence 
in their ability to solve any problem which the practical demands 
of the constructive work may present. While called upon to deal 
with large classes, frequently numbering forty-five pupils, these 
teachers are doing, in all branches, a type of work which few if 
any schools in the country five years ago would have believed 
possible for high-school pupils. 

Let us examine in more detail the physical equipment of the 
school, the required course of study, and the nature of the work 
done. 

As before stated, it is a large school. The ground dimensions 
of the building are 331 X 174 feet. There are eighteen class- 
rooms, a study room, assembly hall, a lunch room seating eight 
hundred, and a gymnasium. There are seven laboratories for 



158 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

work in physiography, zoology, biology, physics, and chemistry, 
with perfectly appointed lecture and demonstration rooms. There 
are seven drawing rooms and the following shops : 

A woodworking shop with seventy-two double benches, a 
grindstone, band saw, circular saw, wood-turning lathe, and two 
sets of steam-heated glue pots. In an adjacent room are a circular 
saw, single-surface planer, two band saws, a hand planer and 
jointer, a boring machine, grinder, and filing bench. 

A wood-turning shop equipped with twenty-four benches and 
lathes, a grindstone, a wet grinder, a circular saw, and a band saw. 

A pattern shop with twelve double benches, six speed lathes, 
two pattern makers' lathes, a grindstone, band saw, circular saw, 
two wood trimmers, steam-heated glue pots, and a gluing table. 
In the lecture rooms of the pattern and wood-turning shops are 
well-arranged seats arid independently driven lathes. 

A foundry, 40 x 80 feet, accommodating forty-eight students 
at one time, and equipped with molding benches, a two-ton cu- 
pola, three furnaces for soft metals, grinder, polisher, drill press, 
traveling crane, electric hoist, gas furnace, core, and molding 
machines. 

A forge shop, similar in size, with forty-eight forges, and 
anvils, grindstone, drill press, grinder, punch and shear, and a 
two-hundred-and-fifty-pound steam hammer. A lecture room 
adjoins. 

A machine shop, 60 x 80 feet, fitted for seventy-two pupils at 
one time, with an elaborate equipment of machine tools, including 
engine lathes, speed lathes, drill presses, boring and turning 
mill, milling machines, shapers, planers, and grinders, in great 
variety. A lecture room and a tool room adjoin. 

A chipping and filing room equipped to accommodate twenty- 
four students at one time, and having, in addition to the benches 
and vises, a grindstone, wet grinder, shaper, drill press, and 
tempering furnace. 



VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS 159 

A pottery room equipped with a potter's wheel and kiln, and 
necessary tables, benches, and small tools. 

The equipment of the electrical-construction shop will be 
given in full later. 

The course of study is that prescribed by the Board of Edu- 
cation. It accords so closely with the traditional manual-training 
course that it is perhaps superfluous to give it, but it is included 
for the sake of clearness. 

MANUAL-TRAINING COURSE 
First Year 
First semester Weeks 

English 20 

Woodworking ' 20 

Mechanical drawing 20 

Free-hand drawing 20 

Algebra . 20 

Physiology 20 

Physical education 20 

Second semester 

English 20 

Woodworking 20 

Mechanical drawing 20 

Free-hand drawing 20 

Algebra 20 

Physiography (with special reference to woods 

and ore) 20 

Physical education . . ■ 20 



eriods 


Credits 


4 


•4 


ID 


•5 


4 


•3 


I 


.05 


4 


•4 


5 


■4 



30 



4 


4 





5 


4 


3 


I 


OS 


4 


4 


5 


4 


2 


I 



30 



•5 



15 



Second Year 
Fi7'st semester 

English 20 

Foundry, forge, and pattern making .... 20 

Mechanical drawing 20 

Plane geometry . . . . . . . . . . . 20 

Physical education 20 



4 


•4 


10 


•5 


4 


■3 


4 


■4 


2 


.1 


24 


17 



l6o EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Second semester 

English 20 4 .4 

Foundry, forge, and pattern making .... 20 10 .5 

Mechanical drawing 20 4 .3 

Plane geometry 20 4 .4 

Physical education 20 2 .1 

24 1.7 
Choose one of the following : 

Foreign language - 40 5 i .0 

Biology 40 5 i.o 

Elementary physics 40 6 i.o 

Chemistry 40 6 1.0 

If chemistry is not taken now, it must be taken the 

fourth year. 

Third Year 
First semester 

Machine-shop practice 20 8 .4 

English 20 4 .4 

Free-hand drawing 20 1 .05 

Mathematics 20 4 .4 

Physics 20 6 .5 

Physical education 20 2 .1 

Second semester 

Machine-shop practice 20 S .4 

Machine or architectural drawing 20 4 .3 

Free-hand drawing 20 i .05 

Physics 20 6 .5 

Mathematics 20 4 .4 

Physical education 20 ^ .1 

25 1.75 
Choose one of the following : 

History 40 4 .8 

Language 40 5 1.0 

Fourth Year 
First semester 

United States history 20 4 

Machine or architectural drawing 20 3 

English 20 4 .4 

Physical education 20 2 .1 

13 I.I 



3 


4^ 


4 


4 


2 


I 


3 I 


I 


6 I 


o 


5 I 


o 


4 


4 


6 I 


o 


4 


4 


6 


8 


6 


5 


6 


5 



VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS i6l 

Second semester 

Civics . 20 

Machine or architectural drawing 20 

Trigonometry 20 

Physical education 20 

Electives 

Chemistry 40 

Language 40 

English 20 

Electrical- or gas-engine construction .... 40 
Electrical- or gas-engine construction .... 20 

Free-hand drawing 40 

Advanced physics 20 

Advanced chemistry 20 

One semester of English must be chosen during this 
year by those who have not taken a foreign language. 

While the equipment and the course of study present httle to 
distinguish this school from other manual-training high schools 
throughout the country, the methods of organizing the material 
and of giving the instruction are believed by the writer to be 
peculiar, or at least to have been given peculiar prominence. 
These methods dominate the work of the whole school, but 
perhaps they are most clearly shown in the working out of the 
two-year vocational course in electricity than elsewhere, and for 
that reason both the subject matter of the course and the equip- 
ment of the electrical-construction room will be given more 
detailed consideration. 

In the fall of 19 10 the Board of Education authorized ten 
different "two-year vocational courses," so called, to be offered 
by the several high schools throughout the city. Five of these 
were such as might appropriately be offered in the technical 
high schools, and the Lane High organized, among others, a 
course in electricity. 

The course of study prescribed by the board was as follows : 



1 62 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

TWO-YEAR COURSE IN ELECTRICITY 
First Year 

First semester Weeks Periods Credits 

Business English 20 4 .4 

Algebra 20 4 .4 

Physiology 20 5 

Elementary physics 20 5 

Mechanical drawing 20 4 

Free-hand drawing 20 2 

Physical education 20 ^ _ 

26 2 
Second semester 

Business English 20 4 

Algebra 20 4 

Elementary electricity 20 8 

Mechanical drawing 20 4 

Free-hand drawing 20 2 

Physical education 20 2^ 

24 I 
Second Year 
First semester 

En^ish 20 4 

or other modern language 20 5 

Geometry, or history with special reference to 

industrial and economic conditions, and civics 20 4 

Applied electricity 20 10 

Mechanical drawing 20 4 

Free-hand drawing 20 2 

Physical education 20 ^ 

26 : 

,. , , or 27 : 

Second semester 

English 20 4 

or other modern language 20 5 

Geometry, or history with special reference to 

industrial and economic conditions, and civics 20 4 

Applied electricity 20 10 

Mechanical drawing 20 4 

Free-hand drawing 20 2 

Physical education 20 ^ 

26 "'. 

or 2 J : 



VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS 163 

While the electrical-construction shop is not used exclusively 
by this class, having been equipped for fourth-year work, its 
facilities are utilized for important portions of the instruction of 
this class, and therefore a complete description of its equipment 
is to the point. 

The electrical-construction shop is equipped with vise benches similar to 
those in the chipping and filing room, and cases for the reception of arma- 
tures, and other pieces under construction. The tool room, adjoining the 
construction shop, is furnished with cases and shelving for construction of 
motors, generators, arc lights, etc. Adjoining this room is a planing room 
equipped with vats used in the electroplating of finished work. 

This shop is equipped with the following machines : 

I 14" Gould & Eberhardt shaper. 

I No. ii Brown & Sharpe universal milling machine. 

4 1 2" X 6' Reed engine lathes, one equipped with turret head. 

I 1 2" X 6' Hendey engine lathe, electric driven. 

I 14" three-spindle Henry & Wright sensitive drill. 

I 14" one-spindle Henry & Wright sensitive drill, electric driven. 

I Wiley winding machine. 

I E. M. Bliss & Co.'s circle shear, electric driven. 

I circular metal saw. 

I 1 2." Star power hack saw. 

I No. 5 Walsh inclinable punch press with open back, motor driven. 

I No. 19 Bliss armature disk slotter, motor driven. 

I 14" Ransom double-dry grinder. 

I 24" Leland & Falconer single wet grinder, motor driven. 

I 39" X 5" grindstone, with Brown & Sharpe trough and truing device. 

The lecture and testing room is furnished with a motor-generator 
set, which gives the following electrical currents : 4 to 8 low voltage, 
direct current; iio direct current; 80 alternating current; i-, 2-, and 
3-phase currents. These currents, in conjunction with the house current 
of 200 volts direct current, give a wide range for the testing of machin- 
ery, instruments, lamps, etc. In conjunction with these rooms is a dark 
room for the storage of cells and the setting up of instruments for the 
measurement of light. 

Even more pertinent and illuminating are the notes which 
were prepared in the school to be used as a basis for the 
courses. 



1 64 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

NOTES TO BE USED AS THE BASIS OF A TWO-YEAR 
VOCATIONAL COURSE IN ELECTRICITY i 

Physics — First Semester 

GencTal notes. Give only such work as will be of value as a basis for 
the courses in electricity and electrical construction which are to follow. 
(This is as much as can be assimilated, and it will be of value even if the 
electrical courses are not taken.) 

Study the English and metric units of length, omitting the decimeter 
and all metric units greater than the meter. 

Memorize 2.54 cm. per inch, 39.37 in. per meter. Study areas and vol- 
umes, particularly of cylinders. 

Memorize 6.45 cm." per square inch, 16.39 cm.' per cubic inch. 

Density. Instead of actually finding the density, find the weight by 
determining the volume and using the known density, as in practice that is 
the problem. 

Memorize the density of water, iron, copper, aluminum. 

Hardness. Show experimentally the hardening and tempering of steel, 
the hardening of brass and other metals, and the annealing of iron, steel, 
aluminum, and other metals. These experiments will serve as a basis for 
the study of magnetism and electromagnets, the use of tools, and the 
spinning, punching, and general manipulation of metals. 

Memorize the relative hardnesses of the common metals. 

Elasticitv. Study springs for making electric contact of steel, brass, 
phosphor bronze, etc. Use as basis for the study of condensers. 

Temicity of iron, steel, brass, copper, aluminum, lead, etc., as bearing 
on supporting wires for copper conductors, with and without lead covers ; 
the relative merits of copper and aluminum for conductors ; binding wires 
for armatures of brass and steel wire, etc. 

Ductility, with particular reference to wires of brass, copper, aluminum, 
German silver, platinum, and resistance wires. 

Cohesion. Experimental work as far as possible on soldering, galva- 
nizing, electroplating, brazing, shellacking, gluing, enameling, painting, 
emphasizing the need of clean surfaces, fluxes, etc. 

Britt/encss. Glass, porcelain, lava, marble, slate, vulcanized fiber and 
rubber, asbestos wood, and other insulators. 

Force. Use the dyne and gram, but without defining the dyne except 
as 1/980 of the gram. 

1 By Ernest J. Andrews, head of Department of Electrical Construction, 
Lane Technical High School. 



VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS 165 

Composition of forces in the same and opposite directions, and at angles, 
as a basis for electromotive forces in series, counter electromotive forces, 
and alternating electromotive forces of various phases. 

Motion at least to the extent of making clear peripheral speed, omitting 
acceleration. 

Gravity (very elementary). Nothing on faUing bodies or the exact law^s 
' of gravity. 

Inertia as a basis for inductance, bringing out the constant conflict 
between force and inertia, force tending to change motion and inertia 
tending to keep it constant ; particularly, as an incident of this, centrifugal 
force, as bearing on the disruption of armatures, etc. 

Peiidiiliuns^ to the extent of emphasizing and elucidating the above- 
mentioned conflict, and as a basis for the study of vibrations of tremblers, 
sound waves, telephone disks, etc. 

Work, energy, and power. To be studied as fully as possible. Bring 
out the idea of torque and its measurement in foot pounds. 

Machines. To be studied pretty fully ; show how the speed (but not 
power) may be varied by gears and belts. 

Friction. Very general, as a basis for electric resistance. 

Mechanics of liquids. Flow of water through pipes as a basis for 
study of electric current ; one is a flow of molecules through tubes, the other 
a flow of electrons through conductors, and the attendant phenomena are 
very similar. Study rate of flow as a basis for intensity of electric current. 
Study surface friction as a basis for electric resistance. 

Water pressuj-e and force pumps as a basis for the study of electro- 
motive force. Pumps in series and parallel. 

Mechanics of gases as a basis for the study of suction pumps. 

Lift pumps, force pumps, centrifugal pumps, gear pumps. 

Propellers and fans. 

Heat. The distinction between heat and temperature. 

Thermal expansion studied slightly, mainly to explain thermometer. 
Give nothing on specific heat. 

Change of state studied rather fully, as bearing on fuses, solders, var- 
nishes, and insulators. 

Conduction and convection (very elementary) showing the relative ther- 
mal conductivities of substances used electrically, as bearing on electric 
conductivity. 

Radiation studied more fully, as bearing on the radiation of waste 
heat from electric machines. 

Calo7imetiy studied sufficiently to show the energy, nature of heat, 
and the ratio of heat and energy units, as bearing on electric waste. 



1 66 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Sound. Only such portions as bear on sound vibrations as affecting 
alternating currents, sounding disks, and electric oscillations. 
Light. Omit practically all but photometry. 
Note. Electricity should be omitted during first semester. 



Electricity — Second Semester ^ 

This course should form a basis for the course in electrical construction 
to be given the following year ; but it should be much broader, forming a 
basis for future w^ork and study. The pupils should be taught not the details 
of apparatus and machines, but the principles underlying them, and in such 
a way that they can readily understand electrical devices thereafter and will 
have the inclination to investigate them. They should be so instructed that 
they will be able and willing to teach themselves after taking up practi- 
cal work ; emphasis, however, should be laid upon the principles that are 
involved in the work selected for construction. 

The study at first should take up electric conductance and should use 
this as the guiding line until the end. Toward the middle of the course 
electric inductance should be brought up, and should go hand in hand with 
conductance to the end. Since, with pupils of this age, the mind is unable 
to grasp easily fundamental principles, these should not be made the basis 
of the work ; but before the course ends every boy should realize that every 
electric phenomenon is a necessary consequence of the conductivity and the 
inductivity of electricity, and hence he should have a good grasp of the prin- 
ciples underlying conductance and inductance. 

It should be shown that the conductance of electricity is simply a flow 
of small particles through the conductor, similar to the flow of water. Among 
practical workers this has been the view for many years, as indicated by the 
expression " juice" ; and, finally, science has shown it to be the correct view. 
The subject should be stripped of its cloak of mystery, and should be ex- 
plained in the light of the facts and definitions studied under physics. The 
similarity of friction and resistance should be pointed out ; also of velocity 
and current ; of elasticity and capacity ; of springs and condensers ; of inertia 
and inductance. 

Omit static electricity altogether. 

Omit the study of cells until all the simpler features of conductance have 
been considered. The flow of electricity through cells is a complex process. 
But one idea at a time should be considered, all incidentals, as far as possible, 
being omitted. 

1 Eight periods per week. 



VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS 1 67 

Quantitative experiments in this course in electricity should not be un- 
dertaken. The experiments should be of a qualitative nature, the exact 
facts being obtained from textbook or teacher, and then enough problems 
should be given to fix the facts and the methods of using them. 

Show the effect of cells in series, in parallel, and in series parallel, because 
of the variations in force. Then, with cells of considerable resistance, such 
as Daniell's, show the effect with cells in series, parallel, and series parallel, 
caused by variations of internal resistance. But do not emphasize internal 
and external resistance too much until the pupils look at internal resistance 
in the same way as at any other resistance. 

During these experiments teach the pupils how to connect up cells in 
combinations properly, according to the following : Wires should be crossed 
only when necessary. Connections should be firmly and neatly made. Cells 
should be symmetrically placed, like poles in corresponding positions, and 
wires should be symmetrically arranged, so that errors will be obvious and 
the battery will look well. 

In this final set of experiments the wiring should be in all respects ac- 
cording to the best practice. 

The general distinction between the voltmeter and ammeter should now 
be brought out, without studying their principles. Readings with each 
should be taken, and Ohm's Law indicated. 

The idea of fall of potential should then be developed. 

By suitable experiments the following should then be shown : The flow 
in any circuit is everywhere equal. The flow through parallel conductors is 
proportional to the conductance and inversely to the resistance. The force, 
or potential difference, is the same at the terminals of each branch. The 
difference in potential in any portion of any circuit is proportional to the 
resistance of that portion. 

Explain the terms " voltage drop," " line loss," etc. 
' Second-class conductors should then be taken up. 

Show either by lecture or individual experiments that the resistance 
decreases inversely as the cross section and directly as the distance, 
and with the degree of saturation, and varies with the material of the 
conductor. 

Show the passage of matter with the current, and finally do some sim- 
ple work in electroplating. 

Study electrolysis with particular emphasis on underground effects on 
pipes, etc. 

Take up the study of cells, particularly some dry cells, and Lelanche's 
cell in its common forms. Introduce the idea of polarization and its reduc- 
tion. Then study storage cells. 



1 68 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Confine this study of second-class conductors mainly to mere facts, giving 
no theories or chemical processes. Remember that the materials of dry 
cells are moist or there would be no force. 

Distinguish between these liquids and others. 

Then take up third-class conductors or insulators. Show by lecture 
experiments that they are conductors in a slight degree. Show that in 
many cases the enormous cross sections and voltages, as with long cables, 
make considerable leakage. 

Include oils in this class. The insulating properties of ordinary oils are 
in about the following ratios : 

Melted paraffin, 8 1 oo ; boiled linseed oil, 8000 ; turpentine oil, 6400 ; 
air, 1670; crude lubricating oil (mineral oil), 1600. These numbers give 
the disruptive strengths in volts per millimeter. 

Bring out the effect of moisture on solid insulators, particularly in com- 
bination with dirt. 

Take up a brief study of the heating effects of current on conductors as 
a basis for elementary study of lights, heaters, and fuses. Give problems 
on wire capacity. 

Show that all conductors are heated by the current, and that this heat 
represents the waste, and is equal to I-R. Consider lighting circuits. 

Inductance. Using permanent magnets, show by the ordinary methods 
the simple laws of magnetism. 

Show that a current passing over a compass needle tends to deflect it ; 
that increasing the current increases the tendency ; that wherever the 
needle is placed the tendency is according to the rule: " If the palm faces 
the current, with the fingers in its direction, the right thumb points toward 
the needle's north pole." 

Show that turns increase the tendency, and that the law still holds true. 
Show that a coil acts like a magnet. 

Bring out the fact that if the wire, and hence the current, doubles on 
itself, there is no effect. 

Show that the material of the conductor is immaterial, but that the 
material of the inside of the coil affects the magnetic tendency enormously- 

Bring out fully that a change in the current only is necessary to cause a 
magnetic change ; but that a change is necessary. 

All of this should be accompanied by simple problems in order to fix 
the facts and to show how to use them mathematically. Thus, the magnet 
pull in dynes is equal to the product of the strengths of the poles divided 
by the square of the distance between them in centimeters. 

They will be able to do only simple problems, and those mechanically ; 
but it will fix the law. 



VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS 169 

Study electromagnets. 

Take up electric bells, telephones, and wire-telegraph systems in an 
elementary way. 

Study circuit breakers. 

Show experimentally the generation of electric pressure by passing a wire 
across a magnetic field. Show the increased effect by strengthening the 
field, and also by increasing the wires in series. 

Show that it is necessary only to change the strength of field with ref- 
erence to the wire, whether the wire moves or not. 

The remainder of the subjects will need to be made very elementary. 

Study alternators. 

Show in an elementary way the peculiarities of alternating currents. 

Study direct-current generators and then motors. 

Without attempting to make the reasons all clear, teach the facts in ref- 
erence to control of voltage and speed. 

Study motor starters and voltage and speed regulators. 

Study induction motors and methods of starting and controlling. 

If possible, take up 3-phase currents. 

Take up lighting circuits more in detail, showing the three-wire systems, 
the economy of high voltages, balancing of three-wire branches. 

Electrical Constnictz'on 

The first portion of this course should be devoted to wiring, beginning 
with interior wiring of a simple nature, such as bells, signals, and telephones. 
Next take up lighting systems and then power circuits, following with 
switchboard work. Then take up outside wiring as far as practicable. 

The work should all be done in the best manner, strictly following the 
underwriter's rules in all cases. It should include all forms of molding, con- 
duit, and insulation work that occur ordinarily, special attention being given 
to sweating and wiping joints. 

The work, however, should omit all straight portions of much length, 
and should be confined to the difficult corners and connections. 

The pupils should figure out the wire sizes and insulation and the 
circuits as far as possible. 

The latter portion should take up the construction and study of some 
simple apparatus or machines, such as induction coils, transformers, or 
small motors. 

Even a cursory reading of these notes will convince one that 
this is not a course in '" high-school physics." One is forced to 
the conclusion that neither teacher nor pupil will find textbook 



170 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

information or textbook experiments adequate to the require- 
ments of the course. And this is indeed the fact, for it is only 
by utiHzing the illustrative material afforded by actual electrical 
construction that the requirements of the course can be fully met. 

And this leads us to the consideration of the shop or hand 
work of the school. It cannot be said that nothing correspond- 
ing to the " logical progression of exercises " remains, but the 
formal exercise has been practically eliminated. A real product 
is being made whenever possible, and it is being demonstrated 
more and more clearly that such work will furnish ample oppor- 
tunity for all the practice necessary for the development of 
technique. It has further been demonstrated that this product, 
if wisely chosen, will also furnish the motive for a considerable 
portion of the theoretical work required in the course. 

For example, the pupils are engaged in the construction of a 
number of motor headstock speed lathes adapted for both wood 
turning and hand metal work, and this one project has interested 
the teachers and the pupils in several departments of the school. 
The drafting rooms where the lathe was designed and where all 
the shop drawings were made, the pattern shop, foundry, ma- 
chine shop and electrical-construction shop, the forge shop where 
sets of turning tools have been made, and the turning shop 
which has furnished the handles for these tools, and the class- 
rooms and laboratories where the theoretical phases of the prob- 
lem have been considered — these have all given their quota of 
help and have received in return their share of the vitalizing 
effect of the reality of the work. 

The effects are seen in several particulars. It is needless to 
say that work of this type at once sets a standard of workman- 
ship superior to that which obtains where the product has no 
practical value. The interest of each boy is widened, for while 
all cannot work on each part, the boys make everything about 
the lathe except the copper wire with which the motor is wound, 



VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS 



171 



and every workman is interested in and more or less informed 
about the completed machine. 

Such work has its effect even on the appearance of the shops. 
They look like real shops, well kept and orderly, but most of 
all busy. A spirit of industry pervades the place, rather than 
the military, "lock-step," time-serving uniformity which so fre- 
quently marked the manual-training schools of yesterday. The 
matter of " discipline " is reduced to a minimum ; these are 
not schoolboys, they are young workmen. 

An interesting attempt to put his work on a shop basis, as 
far as possible and for educational reasons, has been made by 
Mr. Albert G. Bauersfeld, instructor in pattern making. Effi- 
ciency records have been kept and comparisons made with com- 
mercial shops to ascertain the ratio of ability and of money value 
between the pupil and the professional pattern maker. Mr. 
Bauersfeld describes the plan as follows : 

A card system has been used in the pattern shop, which preserves a 
complete record of the time of producing a pattern, the grade of workman- 
ship, the amount of material used, and the amount wasted through the 
error of the student. Following: is the card : 



JOB. 



LANE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL 

EFFICIENCY RECORD 

MATERIAL COST 



Wood- 



Date Begun- 



Date Finished 
Total Hours 
Workmanship- 
Name 
Room 



-% 



No. Ft. in Job- 



No. Ft. Spoiled- 



10 cent Wage Per Hour- 
Total = 



Instructor 



172 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



For the purpose of comparison a set of blue prints was submitted to 
the pattern-shop foreman of a commercial establishment for an estimate of 
the time it would take a professional pattern maker to produce the pattern 
for the several parts of the lathe. This estimate is tabulated below, to- 
gether with data obtained from the pattern-shop record cards. 



Time for 

Professionai. 

Pattern 

Maker 



Time for 
Student 



Front end plate and cover 

Rear end plate 

Yoke 

Bed 

Leg 

Tailstock 

Tailstock cap 

Tailstock handwheel 

Cross bar for tailstock 

Eccentric clamp 

Clamp lever 

Frame for controller 

Clamp plate 

3 face plates 

Tool post and core box 

Tool-post slide 

Tool rest 

Motor hand wheel 

( commutator shells ^ 

4 small motor parts -| brush holder y . 

(^ pole shoe J 

Total 



Hours 

9 
12 
18 
iS 



126I 



Hours 
66 
48 
26 
70 
62 
44 



I 

1 1 


4 
7l 


H 


1\ 


1 


1\ 


4 


'5 


6 


31 


3 

4 


4 


4 


18 


a 


7 



23 



452 



A commercial job shop in Chicago generally estimates about 80 cents per 
hour for labor. To produce these patterns in a commercial shop, therefore, 
would cost $101.20 for labor and 10 cents per board foot for material. 

By "comparing the time required by the expert with that used by the 
students in producing the patterns, and by applying this ratio to the pro- 
fessional's price per hour, we find that a good second-year student is worth 
about 22I cents per hour, or about $10 per week. A pattern maker's 
apprentice receives $6 per week during his second year. 



VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOLS 173 

The factor of waste material in the school workshop is necessarily much 
larger than in a commercial shop, for obvious reasons, and ranges from 
25 per cent to 33 per cent. 

The average student in a school pattern shop is able to make an accept- 
able commercial pattern which will produce a usable casting, though, of 
course, it will not be understood that his workmanship is equal to that of 
an experienced journeyman. 

It should not be thought that the lathe is the only problem 
which has engaged the attention of the school. Nor should it 
be imagined that this newer spirit has been "introduced." Rather 
it has been " developed," and sometimes has been promoted by- 
necessity. At one time it was necessary to start a new class 
in the machine shop, and there were no lathe tools and no 
available funds with which to purchase them. They were there- 
fore made by the boys in the forge shop, and were found to be 
satisfactory, even if not equal to the product of the best makers. 
One thousand sets of these tools have been made for use in 
the school. 

A lot of one thousand lockers is now being projected. The 
drawings are being made and the necessary jigs are being de- 
vised. These lockers will not only furnish excellent work for 
the boys, but will also entail a net saving to the city of over 
one thousand dollars. 

Principal William J. Bogan has become so strongly convinced 
of the value of. this real work that he has offered to undertake 
work for the elementary schools in his district, providing the 
projects are such as can be adapted to the educational require- 
ments of the different courses of study which are being followed 
in his school. 

The school has so few years to its credit that reliable conclu- 
sions can hardly be drawn from its statistics. It is certain, how- 
ever, that many of its pupils would have attended no other type 
of high school, had this been wanting. It is possible that the 
school will not hold an appreciably larger percentage of its 



174 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

pupils than high schools generally, but this should be inter- 
preted in the light of the controlling motive of the school. 
This is shown by the following quotation from an address given 
by Principal Bogan at the dedication of the school, F^ebruary 
22, 1909 : 

" I often wonder what it is in our make-up as teachers that 
impels us to stand afar and gaze at our work through the tele- 
scope of tradition and precedent, which magnifies the impor- 
tance of Greek and Latin and ancient literature, while we 
ignore the pitiful sight of mankind on its knees offering up the 
prayer in all its terrible literalness, ' Give us this day our daily 
bread.' On every side we observe the heartbreaking struggles 
of poverty-stricken parents to provide their children with a 
means of livelihood. The miner risking his life day after day 
and year after year beneath the surface of the earth, the washer- 
woman working over the tub until exhausted, and the seamstress 
illustrating night by night Hood's terrible ' Song of the Shirt' 
seem to lessen not our belief in the desirability of teaching 
the superficialities. On every hand we see parents wearing away 
their lives in toil in order that their children may have some of 
the comforts and a little of the education which they themselves 
have so sorely missed. To those of us who know that much of 
this labor is in vain, these struggles appeal with the force of 
tragedy. P'or years we have looked on this spectacle with more 
or less equanimity until at last the children, by their silent pro- 
tests, by their repeated desertions, and by their pathetic failures, 
have borne in upon us the necessity for a great revolution in 
education. 

Let us then loose the fetters of conservatism that bind us so 
closely to the schools of the past, and let us fairly meet the 
demand we can no longer evade." 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE TRADE SCHOOL 

While it is felt by many that the technical high school is 
capable of such extension and of such close adjustment to indi- 
vidual needs that the trade school is not a necessary part of the 
public-school system, it is probable that, for some time to come, 
the trade school will fill local and immediate needs more effec- 
tively than the high school. 

The trade school, usually open to boys and girls of sixteen 
years of age or over, without severe restrictions as to scholastic 
preparation, bears somewhat the same relation to the public 
technical high school as the intermediate industrial school bears 
to prevocational courses in the seventh and eighth grades of 
the elementary school. 

Trade schools are intended to be markedly practical, and they 
devote a much larger percentage of time to the development of 
special skill and speed, and to the giving of actual shop experi- 
ence in methods of production, than to the consideration of the 
related theory, knowledge, and art.^ Such schools are ''finishing " 
schools and prepare directly for some occupation. What the law 
school is to the future lawyer, or the normal school is to the 
coming teacher, the trade school is to the young man or woman 
who desires to become proficient as a skilled industrial worker. 

The trade school being a finishing school, the pupil enters it 
only when he has definitely determined what occupation he 
desires to follow. In accordance with this conception, the trade 
school eliminates from its courses of study all irrelevant matter 

1 See Manhattan Trade School, p. 130. 
17s 



176 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

in a way which the conservative educator feels to be ruthless 
and inconsistent with the aims of an institution which claims to 
be a " school." 

The administrators of these schools, however, have realized 
that, to accomplish their primary purpose, they must have an 
eye single to it, and they have determined not to add to the al- 
ready large number of young people who "' know everything 
except how to earn a livelihood." 

Within the past five years several public trade schools have 
been established or have been taken over by public-school au- 
thorities after having been successfully administered for a time 
under private control. Prominent among these may be mentioned 
the Manhattan Trade School for girls. New York City ; the Phil- 
adelphia Trades School ; the Milwaukee School of Trades for 
Boys, and the Milwaukee School of Trades for Girls ; the Girls' 
Trade School, Boston ; the Portland School of Trades, Portland, 
Oregon ; the Worcester Trade School, Worcester, Massachu- 
setts ; and the State Trade School, Bridgeport, Connecticut. 

The following description of the Milwaukee schools of trades 
is taken from a paper read at the 191 1 convention of the 
Western Drawing and Manual Training Association, by Mr. 
Charles F. Perry, supervisor of industrial education, Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin. 

MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OE TRADES 

The trade school for boys first opened its doors for pupils on January 2, 
1906. It is thus in its sixth year. It was started under the auspices of the 
Merchants' and Manufacturers' Association of Milwaukee, through the in- 
itiative of Mr. Frederick W. Sivyer in his inaugural address as president of 
the above society. 

He had been a member of the Board of City School Directors, and helped 
introduce manual training into the Milwaukee public schools. The trade 
school was conducted under these private auspices for one and one-half 
years. The child grew beyond the ability of its parent to care for it. More- 
over, the development of the youth of a community into efficient citizens is 



THE TRADE SCHOOL 177 

not the function of private individuals, but of municipal effort and taxation. 
Just as the kindergarten and manual training in these United States were 
created through philanthropic initiative and proved of value to the munici- 
pality before being adopted by it, just so will trade schools be established 
in this country. 

The Wisconsin legislature of 1907 enacted a law making it possible for 
any city in the state, desirous of establishing trade schools, to levy a tax not 
to exceed one half mill for that purpose. Under private auspices the tuition 
charge was $10 per month, and the courses of apprenticeship were approx- 
imately one year in length. 

The Milwaukee Board of School Directors took advantage of the new 
law, and on August i, 1907, " The Milwaukee School of Trades " became 
"The Milwaukee Public School of Trades for Boys." Any trade school 
which is compelled to charge its pupils $ i o per month for tuition precludes 
the very student who should be enrolled on its books. Placing it under 
municipal control made possible the supplying of two vital needs — free tuition 
for all students under twent)^ years of age, and sufficient time in each course 
for a student to complete a thorough apprenticeship. Under private auspices 
two manufacturing trades were taught, namely pattern making and machinist 
and toolmaking ; and one building trade, plumbing and gas fitting. During 
the summer of 1908 another building trade was added, namely a complete 
carpentry and cabinetmaking apprenticeship. 

The length of each course at present for each trade except plumbing is 
two years of fifty weeks per year, and forty-four hours per week, making 
the total apprenticeship 4400 hours. The plumbing trade requires one half 
of this time, or 2200 hours. If a student shows a special aptitude and can 
complete the required amount of work in less than the prescribed time, and 
wishes his diploma, it is granted him. In trade teaching, each pupil is a 
class by himself. He may advance as quickly as he pleases, consistent with 
the attaining of the required standard of the school in workmanship. 

The hours of attendance are from 8 a.m. to 12 m. and from i to 5 p.m. 
daily, excepting Saturday afternoons and legal holidays. The school closes 
for vacation the last two weeks in July. 

Tuition is free to boys who are residents of Milwaukee, and between 
the ages of sixteen and twenty. They are required to pay a material charge 
of $1 a month. Residents over twenty are required to pay $5 per month, 
which includes material charges. Nonresidents are required to pay $15 per 
month, which also includes material charges. Instruction is given in night 
classes four evenings per week from October i to April 13, two hours each 
evening, with charges as follows : residents between sixteen and twenty, 
tuition free, and 50 cents per month for material charge ; residents over 



178 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

twenty, $1 per month for tuition and material; all nonresidents, $4 per 
month for tuition and material. 

In the boys' school the course of instruction in each trade includes the 
following five branches : 

1. Shop practice and trade lectures. 

I j Isometric 

^ . I Mechanical drawing J forking drawings 

2. Drawmg -i j Problems in design 

{^Architectural 

Free-hand working drawing 

r Shop arithmetic 

-,, , , , .1 Shop algebra 

3. Workshop mathematics -! ^, 

Shop geometry 

[ Shop trigonometry 

r,, . . . I In connection with each trip a carefully 

4. Shop-mspection trips < . , , ■ , 

written report must be submitted. 

5. Practical talks and lectures on subjects connected with each trade, 
and topics fundamental to all trades. 

Approximately one fourth of the student's time during his course is 
devoted to academic instruction incidental to his trade, and vitally essential 
to the first-class artisan whom the world needs and the school is endeavoring 
to develop, the remaining three fourths being spent in actual shop practice. 
Up to April I, 191 1, the boys' school has sent out thirty-four graduates, 
subdivided as follows : 

Pattern makers 12 

Machinists and toolmakers 12 

Plumbers and gas fitters 10 

The average age of the above thirty-four graduates is 2o| years. The 
average length of time since the thirty-four graduates left school is 1 1 1 
months. The average rate of pay of the graduates upon leaving school is 
26 cents an hour. The average rate of pay of the above young men at 
the end of i il months is as follows: 

Patternmakers 31. 8 cents per hour 

Machinists and toolmakers .... 32.6 cents per hour 

Plumbers 53.2 cents per hour 

or a general average of 39 cents per hour. These figures will compare 
favorably with those of the commercial-graduate apprentice. The cost per 
year of the trade-school pupil to the city is approximately four times the 
cost of the high-school pupil, but the trade-school graduate can command 
practically four times the wages of the nonvocationally trained high-school 



THE TRADE SCHOOL 1 79 

graduate, and possesses equal possibilities for advancement with his high- 
school brother graduates. 

The original law which made possible the establishment of municipal 
trade schools in Wisconsin, and which contained a section limiting the age 
of entrance to sixteen years, has been changed so that boys and girls may 
enter at fourteen. The Board of School Directors has taken advantage of 
the change in the law and applied it to the girls' trade school only. In the 
construction of the new municipal school of trades for boys, plans of which 
are at present in process of preparation, the outlook for a preparatory de- 
partment which will care for boys between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, 
and who meet certain requirements, is very bright. This will aid materially 
in solving the most complex part of industrial education. There is at present 
a trade-school preparatory course added to the regular high-school courses, 
which permits the eighth-grade graduate to follow a good preparatory course 
until he is sixteen ; but there are many boys who cannot reach or who do 
not wish to attend the high school, who will do excellent work in the trade- 
school preparatory department. This department should not be narrow, 
but should treat some of the upper-grade subjects, with which the boy has 
frequently found difficulty, from a new and more vital point of view. 

Viewed broadly, the problem confronting those responsible for the ad- 
ministration of a girls' trade school is more complex than the one to be 
solved in connection with a similar school for boys. The future for the 
boy graduate is in a measure fixed ; that is, he will remain at his trade 
and work upwards into positions of higher and higher responsibility, de- 
pending upon his ability and energy. He will always be in the ranks of 
earners. Not so with the girl graduates. More than half of them will 
have left their trade in a few years and become housekeepers in their 
own homes. They will be occupied many more years in the latter duties 
than at the trade they have learned. Realizing this fact, the Board of 
School Directors has wisely and with farsightedness arranged a course of 
study which will prepare Milwaukee girls to earn an efficient wage in a 
minimum time, and at the same time equip them for the household duties 
of the home-keeper. 

The age of admission is two years younger than that of the boys' trade 
school, thus permitting them to enter the ranks of skilled earners at an age 
somewhat younger than the graduates of the boys' school. This is per- 
missible on account of the less amount of personal risk in the trades which 
girls may learn, as compared to the dangers inherent in many trades 
popular with boys ; and also on account of the laws which forbid boys under 
sixteen years of age working on dangerous machinery. 

The total number of hours per week required of the girls is thirty-five, 



I So EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

or nine hours less than demanded from the boys. Instruction is given from 
8.30 A.M. to 12 M., and from 1 to 4.30 p.m., with no Saturday morning ses- 
sion. The trades taught are dressmaking and millinery. 
^ The dressmaking trade is divided into six separate steps, as follows : 

Elementary sewing department. 

Underwear department. 

Children's department. 

Shirtwaist and cotton-dress department. 

Dressmaking department. 

Custom-work department. 

The millinery department is divided into two parts, the elementary and 
the advanced. 

Supplementing the trade instruction is the following list of work required 
of all pupils : 

Drawing. 

Trade and workshop mathematics. 

English, fjusiness correspondence. 

Household science, including a thorough course in cooking. 

Physical culture. 

Shop-inspection trips. 

Approximately two fifths of the student's time during her course is de- 
voted to work supplemental to her chosen trade. 

Several features are common to the administration of both schools. For 
instance, a special feature of all the classroom work consists in adapting it 
as nearly as possible to the special requirements of the various trades. A 
different class of instruction is given in mechanical drawing and workshop 
mathematics for each trade. 

A good working knowledge of elementary mathematics is highly essen- 
tial to the successful artisan, foreman, and forewoman, and a good course 
in this subject is given. While it is conceded that many other branches 
would prove of value to the students, it has not been deemed advisable to 
introduce them into the actual work of the schools; but the students are 
urged to supplement their practical work by as much outside reading and 
study as possible. They are urged to subscribe for some good trade journal 
along the lines of their chosen trade, and keep in close touch with the latest 
and best methods of trade practice. It is also urged upon them to start a 
library of their own. The world has excellent facilities of self-culture for 
the ambitious and industrious youth. Wisconsin offers the opportunities of 
university extension work. The advantages to be obtained by continuation 
work in the city night schools of both grammar and high-school grade are 
carefully impressed upon the graduate of these schools. 



THE TRADE SCHOOL l8l 

It is not the purpose of the school that its graduates shall be merely 
skilled artisans ; it is intended that they shall be not only trained and effi- 
cient but intelligent workmen, desirous of making the most out of themselves 
in their chosen vocations from every point of view. 

Each student receives personal attention and instruction, and no student 
is held back on account of the slowness of other pupils. Careful attention 
is paid to the formation of neat habits of work in each student, and only 
the best methods of procedure are taught. All work is done from drawings, 
and no problem either in classroom or shop, that does not have a practical 
application, is given to a pupil. Theory and practice are closely related all 
through each apprenticeship. It is the purpose of the school to surround 
the students by the best possible environment and atmosphere. Habits of 
punctuality are encouraged, and the value of the possession of a good trade 
is impressed upon the students. 

It is also the aim of the school to secure instructors who are specialists 
in their line, men and women who are interested in the work, and who can 
impart their knowledge and experience to apprentices. 

The class of work given to the students is carefully planned to be as 
nearly as possible of equal educational and practical value. Thus the stu- 
dent's interest is aroused and held. A high standard of workmanship is 
demanded from every student, and only those attaining it are permitted to 
graduate. 

The night classes are planned principally to supplement the experience 
of apprentices and workmen who are employed during the day at the trade 
in which they desire advancement under night instruction. The total day 
instruction of the two-year courses requires forty-four hundred hours. The 
total night instruction of one term of thirty-one weeks at eight hours per 
week amounts to two hundred forty-eight hours. Thus it is evident that 
none but students of exceptional ability and determination could expect to 
serve the entire school apprenticeship in night classes only. The school 
does not advise students to attempt to learn a trade by this means. 

It is impressed upon students all through their course that success and 
happiness are not measured by money alone, but by the knowledge and 
experience of work well done. 

The schools do not claim to turn out experienced workers or journeymen. 
The aim is to instruct the students thoroughly, in as short a time as possible, 
in all the fundamental principles and in the practice of the trade in question, 
so that they may, upon graduation, possess ability and confidence, and be of 
immediate and practical value to their employers and receive a fair remu- 
neration at once. Speed and efficiency as commercial employees should 
soon follow. 



1 82 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

The David Ranken, Jr., School of Mechanical Trades,^ 
St. Louis, Missouri 

Another school, somewhat different in type but professing 
rehance on the efficacy of speciaHzed and intensive trade train- 
ing, is the Ranken School of St. Louis. This school offers courses 
in carpentry, pattern making, bricklaying, plumbing, painting, 
and steam engineering to boys of fifteen years of age or over, who 
have completed the work of the sixth grade, or who have an 
equivalent education. The school is in session seven hours a 
day (three and one-half hours on Saturdays), for ten and one-half 
months of the year. The classes are taught by men who have a 
thorough and practical knowledge of their respective trades. The 
work is confined exclusively to the specific trade and to the draw- 
ing, mathematics, and, in the second year, the science of that trade. 
During the first year the weekly program provides for twenty- 
eight and one-half hours shopwork, six hours drawing, and four 
hours mathematics. The school is therefore a typical trade school. 

The David Ranken, Jr., School of Mechanical Trades was 
made possible by the generosity of the donor, whose name it 
bears, its liberal endowment making it essentially a free school ; 
for while the tuition amounts to ^30 a year, the actual per capita 
running expenses average six times that amount. The founda- 
tion deed of the institution bears the date of November 29, 1907, 
and the school opened its doors to pupils for the first time on 
September 7, 1909, with twenty students in attendance. 

The purpose of the school is clearly shown by the following 
quotations, the first from the foundation deed, and the second 
from the 19 11 report of Superintendent Lewis Gustafson, 

Whereas for many years I have been impressed with the fact that too 
Httle attention is given to the instruction of boys in the mechanical trades, 
and that the public schools and other free educational institutions have a 

^ From an article prepared by the author for ]'ocational Education, 
January, 191 2. 



THE TRADE SCHOOL 183 

• 
tendency to create in the minds of the young, as well as in the community, 

a prejudice against manual labor, and the idea that common work is not 
respectable, so that a false impression and a false pride often influence 
boys and young men to avoid the mechanical trades in which they might 
have succeeded, in order to follow pursuits for which they are unfitted and 
branches of business which are overcrowded and in which they probably 
would not succeed, I am satisfied that there is need of an institution the 
object of which shall be education and instruction in the ordinary mechani- 
cal trades and in which boys, especially, may be taught the dignity of labor. 
The aim of the Ranken School may be summarized as the training of 
efficient mechanics who shall take a pride in the proper performance of their 
work, and who shall have such knowledge and such skill as will enable them 
to meet intelligently whatever demands that work shall lay upon them. 
While it is not the aim primarily to train foremen and superintendents, it 
is the expectation that within a few years after graduation many of the stu- 
dents, by virtue of the training they have received, will be enabled to rise 
to positions of responsibility, or go into business for themselves. 

It should be observed that while the school is undoubtedly 
ambitious for its future graduates, it plans to fit them for the 
higher positions, if at all, only by enabling them to rise from the 
ranks through successful work. On the other hand, it teaches 
no trade which is not open at the top ; which does not, in other 
words, consist of work which is in itself educative because it 
combines thinking with action. As fairly illustrative of all the 
courses we may examine in detail the work offered in carpentry, 
as outlined in the catalogue. 

COURSE OF STUDY IN CARPENTRY 
The instruction offered in this department aims to cover thoroughly the 
work of the carpenter and joiner, with particular emphasis on housebuilding. 
Students work from drawings and blue prints throughout. 

Shopwork 
Fh'st Vea?- 

First term. Names and uses of tools, with instructions as to their 
handling and care ; exercises in joinery. 

Second ter7)t. Joist framing and setting ; bracing ; spacing ; practical 
use of joinery exercises in framing sills, plates, girders, and ties, and fitting 



1 84 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

in braces ; use of nails, bolts, stirrups, and camber rods ; machine planing, 
sawing, and working moldings ; tool grinding ; setting up machines. 

Third term. Making window frames, sash, doors, blinds, and various ■ 
kinds of moldings ; paneling ; millwork in general. 

Second Year 

First tertn. Roof framing ; cornice setting ; shingling ; making and set- 
ting centers, columns, and supports ; interior finish, such as jamb casing, 
bascboarding, fitting and hanging doors and transoms, and setting ceiling 
beams ; putting on hardware. 

Second term. Cabinetwork ; building stairs, handrail, ramps, and casings. 

Third term. Erecting complete buildings and full-sized sections of 
buildings in the school shop. 

Lectures. During the course informal shop lectures are given on such sub- 
jects as the following: the proper care of edged tools; the various woods used 
in building, and their proper selection and treatment ; the measurement of 
lumber ; glues, nails, screws, bolts, nuts, pins, straps, and other fastenings ; 
framing, shoring, and underpinning ; roofs, trusses, spans, and beams ; stair 
building; woodworking machinery; paints, shellacs, and varnishes; fire- 
prevention devices ; the steel square ; building ordinances of St. Louis. 

T/iird J 'cnr 
An additional year of instruction in roof framing, roof trussing, stair 
building, and cabinetwork is offered for those who have completed the work 
of the two-year course, or its equivalent. Students in this third year will 
be permitted to specialize at the discretion of the instructor. 

SUPPLEMENTAKV INSTRUCTION APPLIED MATHEMATICS 

First Year 

First term. Arit/imetic. Fractions, decimals, squares and square root, 
cubes and cube root, areas, volumes. 

Second term. Elementary geometry. Chiefly the measurement of angles, 
chords, and arcs ; areas of triangles, rectangles, circles, and irregular figures ; 
cubic contents of tanks, bins, cylinders, cones, and other bodies ; percentage, 
proportion, discount ; English and metric systems of weights and measures. 

Thij'd term. Formulce. Simple fundamental processes involving one or 
two unknown quantities, in so far as these are necessary in the handling 
of formulae commonly found in handbooks and books of reference for 
trade workers, or in the solution of useful geometrical problems ; practice in 
working problems by formula;. 



THE TRADE SCHOOL 1 85 

Second Year 

First term. Mechanics. Problems involving the laws of the lever, 
wheel and axle, inclined plane, screw, wedge, etc. ; expansion and con- 
traction of solids, liquids, and gases ; water pressures, flow of water through 
pipes ; horsepower of pumps and engines, friction, etc. (In connection with 
work in applied science.) 

Second ter7n. Elements of plane trigonometry. Simple problems in- 
volving the measurement of angles, slopes, oblique forces, wind pressures, 
resultant of forces, inaccessible heights and distances, etc. Problems arising 
in the use of tape, transit, and level. 

Third term. Devoted to the solution of problems arising in science 
building construction, etc. 

Special emphasis on measurement of lumber, area, and cubic contents ; 
and on geometrical problems involved in roof framing, stair building, and 
the use of the steel square ; estimates. 

Drafting 
First Year 

First term. General use of drawing instruments ; free-hand lettering 
and sketching ; geometrical problems relating to the trade ; joinery exercises. 

Second terin. Details of fences, sheds, and stables ; joist framing ; 
studding ; girders and trusses. 

Third term. Scale and full-size details of window frames and sash ; 
door frames and doors ; details of stairs and interior finish. 

Second Year 

First term. Plan reading and preparation of working drawings ; city 
building ordinances. 

Second te7'm. Working drawings consisting of Y' scale plans, elevations, 
and sections of houses and cottages, with Y' details. 

Third term. Tracing and blueprinting ; specifications ; taking off 
quantities. 

Applied Science^ 

First tei'm. Applied physics. Properties of materials used in the 
trades ; force in its various forms ; levers, booms, derricks, and hoists ; 
study of ropes, timbers, boilers, pipes, and joints when under stress ; hold- 
ing power of nails, screws, glued joints, cement, and mortar ; bearing power 

^ Given in second year only. 



1 86 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

of soils ; wind pressure and snow loads ; water circulation ; expansion of 
pipes, etc., due to heat. 

Second term. Applied c/iei/iis/rv. Chemical elements and their gen- 
eral properties ; water impurities ; oxidation, rust, corrosion ; heat ; com- 
bustion ; study of gas and steam ; acids and their action ; study of materials, 
such as oils, cements, mortars, wood, brick, and tile, and the various metals 
used in the trades ; deterioration of materials from the action of gas, heat, 
moisture, and frost. 

Third term. Continuation of first and second terms. Practical methods 
in building measurements ; practice with the builder's tape, transit, and 
level ; mathematical problems based on these measurements ; building con- 
struction and city ordinances. 

Brief statements of the other courses follow : 

Pattern making. Pattern making covers architectural and 
machine pattern work, and includes the making of patterns 
for pipes, columns, panels, stair work, pulleys, flywheels, steam 
cylinders, engine frames and beds, and spur, bevel, and worm 
gears. 

Bricklaying. Through a graded series of examples practice 
and instruction are given in such types of bricklaying as the 
workman is sure to need in the erection of buildings. 

Plumbing. The course in plumbing is planned to meet com- 
pletely the needs of the practical plumber. 

Painting. Instruction in painting includes house, sign, and 
fresco painting, and aims to give ability to plan appropriate 
schemes of interior and exterior decoration, and to furnish the 
necessary technique of the practical workman. 

Steam engineering. The course in steam engineering aims to 
give a complete practical and theoretical knowledge of the duties 
of the stationary engineer. It involves the daily operation of 
the school power plant, and the visits to other power plants and 
to factories. 

A study is made of fuels, the chemistry of combustion, and 
the construction of boilers. Consideration of pumps, steam en- 
gines, steam turbines, gas engines, valve setting, gauge reading 



THE TRADE SCHOOL 187 

and testing, motors and electric lighting, is included in this 
course. Elementary machine-shop work is also given. 

The courses are planned to cover a period of two years, with 
the possibility of special advanced work on their completion. 
Progress through the courses, however, varies with the individual. 

During the second year, instruction is given in applied science 
in all courses, and informal shop lectures are given for the pur- 
pose of broadening the outlook of the pupils. 

Eqiiipnient. The physical equipment of the school is adequate 
to the subjects now taught, and most of the work done is of a 
thoroughly practical nature. On the other hand, it should be 
stated that a fundamental principle of the school is to give what 
may be called intensive training in the technique of the trade, 
eliminating almost entirely the commercial product, interest in 
which, it is thought, might possibly divert attention from the 
legitimate business of the school. Thus, while men are taught, 
in the carpentry class, every phase of frame-house construction, 
the building erected by the pupils is, nevertheless, an incom- 
plete, temporary structure, being torn down at the end of the 
year. It is claimed that the work of wrecking the building con- 
tributes to the education of the pupils, as they are taught to 
demolish the work with the least expenditure of time and the 
maximum saving of material, and "because carpenters are con- 
stantly required to do this kind of work. 

It may be said, parenthetically, that in this particular the 
school shows a marked variation from the type. The superin- 
tendent, however, maintains that the school occupies a middle 
ground ; it proposes neither to duplicate the general educational 
work of the high school on the one hand, nor to become an 
industrial plant on the other. It is a trade school, but it aims to 
make trade instruction contribute to the mental, moral, and so- 
cial well-being of the boy, by utilizing every available hour in 
the doing of new work requiring close application and constant 



1 88 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

intellectual reaction. The school believes in the dignity of work, 
the educative value of combined thinking and doing, and the 
cultural value of efficiency, whether manual or mental. It is safe 
to predict that it will not be deflected from its avowed purpose, 
either by the glamour of traditional educational ideas regarding 
the superiority of pure science, pure mathematics, and pure 
design, or by the attractions of the commercial-product system. 

Enrollment. The membership of the school is not at present 
large, but it is constantly increasing. The writer called at the 
school on the opening day in September and found 82 students in 
attendance, about evenly divided between former pupils and those 
enrolling for the first time. The attendance on the fourth day of 
the term was 96, an increase of 2 1 over the figures for the corre- 
sponding day last year. By the beginning of the second month 
the enrollment of regular day pupils had reached 122. This en- 
rollment, which, by the way, includes 25 from outside of the 
city and 5 from other states, will undoubtedly increase materially. 

The members of the day classes appeared to be younger than 
one expects to find in a trade school. Boys are admitted at fif- 
teen, and the average age seemed not far beyond this mark. The 
graduating class of 191 1 numbered 18, and the ages of these 
boys on entrance, the distribution among the several trades, and 
their previous schooling are* shown by the following table : 



Age at Entrance — Graduating Class of July, 191 i 







Carpen- 

TP.Y 


Plumb- 
ing 


Steam 
Engi- 
neering 


Paint- 
ing 


Totals 


Schooling 


Ages 


Elementary Grade 


Year in 
High School 




6th 


7th 


8th 


J St 


2d 


15-16 
16-17 
17-18 
18-19 


3 

I 
I 
I 


I 

I 

4 
2 


'7 
I 


I 


6 

3 
6 

3 


I 
I 


I 
I 

2 


I 

2 


2 


I 





THE TRADE SCHOOL 1 89 

In addition to the day classes there is a large evening school, 
in session four evenings a week from October to March inclu- 
sive, designed to meet the needs of mechanics, either journey- 
men or apprentices, already at work in the trades. 

There is also a cooperative course for apprentices in the ma- 
chinist's trade, fifty of whom receive instruction in drawing and 
mathematics two mornings a week. The tuition is ^5 a term, or 
$ 1 5 a year, and is paid by the employer, who also permits the 
apprentice to attend without loss of wages. All arrangements 
are made in accordance with an agreement between the school 
and the St. Louis branch of the National Metal Trades Asso- 
ciation. 

The enrollment in all classes for the school year 19 10- 191 1 
was 159 regular day pupils, 58 metal-trades apprentices, 248 
night-school pupils; total, 465. 

07itlook for tJie fiitnrc. A school which has been in existence 
but two years should be judged not so much by its present ac- 
complishment, however noteworthy it may be, as by its hopes 
and plans for the future. The school as it stands at present is 
apparently but the beginning of a highly diversified institution. 
The beautiful and commodious building which it now occupies 
is but one of a group of buildings now quite definitely planned, 
and the additions already contemplated will cost in the vicinity 
of $250,000. New subjects will be added as soon as demanded 
by the constituency of the school, and it is expected that plans 
will be made for reaching the boy of fourteen, and for enriching 
the more elementary trade courses, to be provided for him, with 
some general educational work. 

The location is thought to be ideal. Recently several industrial 
plants have been built in the vicinity, replacing former dwelling 
houses. It is expected that in the near future the school will 
be the center of a district which is both industrial and residential, 
containing the homes and the workshops of a population which 



igo EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

the school can effectively serve not only vocationally but socially 
as well. It is toward the ultimate fulfillment of this larger pur- 
pose that the school is being steadfastly developed. 



The Worcester Trade School, Worcester, 
Massachusetts 

This school is chosen for description because it differs from 
those already noted in the emphasis which it places on the 
" product system " as being fundamental to its methods of 
instruction. 

The school was opened in 1 9 1 1 with the avowed purpose of 
training thoroughly skilled and competent workmen. Established 
under the laws of Massachusetts, it is supported jointly by the 
state and the city of Worcester, and is controlled by a Board of 
Trustees, elected by the City Council and acting as agents for 
the state. 

Occupying a building especially erected and equipped for the 
purpose of providing adequate training for machinists, pattern 
makers, carpenters, and cabinetmakers, it is one of the most 
effective trade institutions in the country. Specializing in but 
few trades, it applies itself with great thoroughness to the ac- 
complishment of its purpose. 

The school is in session from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. on five days a 
week, and practically for the entire year, or, to be exact, for 
four terms of twelve weeks each. 

Fully one half the time is spent in productive shop work ; 
that is to say, in manufacturing a product which has a definite 
commercial value. 

The remaining time is devoted to training, but not to instruc- 
tion in book work alone, for considerable attention is given to 
the study of shop processes and in gaining additional information 
about and special practice in the technique of the trade. 



THE TRADE SCHOOL 



191 



Skill, speed, and appreciation of industrial demands, which 
are the requisites of the skilled workman, are gained by doing 
the commercial work. 

In an article in the November Vocational Education, en- 
titled " The Commercial School Shop," Principal Elmer H. Fish 
discusses fully this feature of the Worcester Trade School, and 
the following is quoted from that discussion. 

ADVANTAGES OF COMMERCIAL WORK 

The principal purpose of this paper is to discuss" the commercial-shop 
idea as it appHes to industrial schools, that is, to the practice work of a school. 

Briefly the arguments for the commercial work are these : First, interest ; 
pupils are more easily interested in something of use. Second, thoroughness ; 
it is much easier to insist on accuracy of workmanship when the product 
must meet commercial conditions. Third, speed ; speed can be gotten with- 
out crowding when a comparison can be made with commercial practice. 
Fourth, efficiency ; pupils are capable of doing a large amount of work. 
Whatever effort they put forth should result in the largest possible return 
to society for its investment in their education and training. 

Opposed to these considerations are : first, the danger of exploiting 
pupils through too great desire for a good financial showing ; second, the 
danger of antagonizing competing manufacturers by the invading of a private 
market by a public corporation ; third, the danger of antagonizing labor 
in the same way. It may be of interest to discuss each of these arguments. 

Interest. It is difficult for the average man to interest himself in the 
abstract. Shopwork which is not a part of a valuable product is abstract. 
As a matter of experience I would say that the average boy of sixteen years 
of age will get four times the training from chipping a slot in a tool post 
for a lathe that he would get from chipping the same amount of steel that 
is merely to be used again and again until it is all gone. On the other hand, 
abstract exercises have their disciplinary value ; as, for example, a boy who 
chips carelessly on a tool post can be brought to a realization of his sins by 
being relegated to a block of steel until he is ready to be careful. 

TJioronghness. We have found a very great value in the fact that work 
sold is inspected by outsiders who have no acquaintance with pupils or their 
troubles. We are fortunately all human and humane. After we have seen 
a boy struggle with a difficult job, watched him through the valley of despair, 
and finally seen him win out, it is hard for us to reject his work for a trifling 



192 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

error that he probably would correct at the next attempt. Here the outside 
inspector comes to our aid by calmly rejecting the work for the very simple 
reason that it is not right. The disciplinary value of this inspection and its 
realism are two of the most potent factors in the imparting of experience 
to pupils. 

It is not wise to do as is occasionally done — sell " second-quality goods " 
at second-quality prices. The scrap heap may be large, but it will inevitably 
be found that boys can and will, save for occasional lapses, turn out as good 
work as is distinctly and firmly demanded. 

A small proportion of work actually sold will serve to set a standard for 
a considerable quantity used in the school. Of course no school ought to 
buy what it can make, provided the making is in line with the training which 
it is desired to give. An excellent expedient during the period of the equip- 
ment of a school is to make machinery in larger quantities than is needed 
and exchange the surplus for other equipment. The work offered in ex- 
change must then pass the inspection of the market. 

Speed. Modern conditions have little use for a man, no matter how 
skilled, whose production falls below a reasonable speed. In fact it is easy 
to show that a shop having a considerable overhead charge to meet might 
easily become bankrupt through the employment of slow workers, evein 
though they were paid no wages at all. 

Such being the case, it is desirable that graduates of industrial schools 
should be, if not rapid workers, at least trained to know what pace they must 
set to hold a position. The use of commercial work is especially valuable 
in this connection because it affords a real basis of comparison. For example, 
a boy was turning up brass bushings, for which we received 2 cents each, 
averaging an hour for each one. After being shown that at that rate he was 
worth 2 cents an hour minus the overhead charges of the plant (about 15 
cents per hour), or about 13 cents less than nothing, he began to see ways 
in which he could increase his production. Of course it would be possible 
to estimate time on exercise work, but estimates do not have the same effect 
on students that the actual facts do, nor are they so likely to be correct. 

Crowding pupils to get speed is dangerous on account of the possibility 
of exploitation. Speed should be attained solely for the good of the pupil, 
not for the sake of getting work out of the shop at a given date, except in 
cases. This is a most difficult thing to show to the manufacturers from 
whom work is obtained. However, it will not do to take outside work on 
close delivery dates. It is better to have none at all. 

Efficiency. So far as the pupil is concerned, efficiency has been covered 
in the previous paragraphs. As affecting the community, it must be admitted 
that the taxpayers are entitled to the most economical administration 



THE TRADE SCHOOL 



193 



possible, consistent with the best training. In this case the two things are 
entirely consistent, inasmuch as the best training for other reasons involves a 
usable product, which in turn helps to reduce the cost of running the school. 
Then, too, waste of time and energy is always regrettable. To put boys or 
girls to work, performing what might be useful operations, on useless prod- 
uct seems so far from the reasonable, normal thing to do, that no one 
would fconsider it except for the imaginary obstacles of the opposition of 
labor and capital, which will be discussed later. 

DANGERS IN COMMERCIAL WORK 

Exploitation. As stated above, there is a wonderful amount of potential 
energy in a fourteen- or fifteen-year-old boy. Under proper direction this 
can be turned into a large amount of valuable work. The conditions which 
bring forth the largest amount of work are not the best for the training 
of the pupil. There must be a balancing of one against the other, so that 
the maximum of efficiency in the education and training of the boy shall 
be attained with the greatest possible efficiency in production. 

A school in the formative stage, as most schools are to-day, will find this 
difficult, because it will be necessary to do many jobs by inefficient methods, 
since beginners should be taught to do work by purely shop methods in 
distinction from factory methods. For example, a boy may very well be 
taught to drill to a scribed circle when modern methods would dictate that 
he should do the work with a jig. The latter method of driUing might be 
desirable after the school had acquired a class of boys in their third or 
fourth year able to make their own jigs. 

The danger of exploitation may readily come about through politics. The 
expense of conducting industrial schools appears to be necessarily greater 
than that to which the public is accustomed in other secondary schools. In 
order to get the political body which governs the finances of a city to estab- 
lish a school, it is very easy to claim that the productive element may be 
pushed so that the cost may be as low as that of other secondary schools. It 
would also be possible to claim, and the claim could be made good, that, 
with a picked group of boys and a school with several hundred pupils and 
teaching a selected group of trades, the schools could be made self-sup- 
porting. 

It is easy to see that a school which is self-supporting is something 
besides an educational institution. Such an institution, which could also pay 
its pupils wages, might be the best possible solution of the problem ; but so 
long as it cannot pay wages it must be borne in mind that the largest ex- 
pense to the community lies in the loss of wages which the pupils might 



194 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

otherwise earn. This is offset later by the increased earning capacity of the 
pupils, but the loss is a present one and falls on the parents, who are 
usually ill prepared to meet it. 

The average boy could easily earn a thousand dollars during four years. 
The cost to the community of a four years' course in a trade school ought 
not to be over $600. The resulting gain in worth of the boy's time per- 
fectly justifies the expenditure of the $1600. The city is amply able to in- 
vest its $600 and wait for the return ; but parents, as a rule, are not able 
to invest the $1000, certainly not the parents of the boys who most need 
this training. 

Under these circumstances it is the plain duty of the school to see to it 
that the least possible amount of the pupil's time is wasted consistent with 
his health and the right of his parents to a reasonable amount of his services. 

Labor. This brings us into apparent conflict with another possible ob- 
jection, the labor element. This has, to many minds, been the great bug- 
bear of the whole movement. In fact it has been so feared that no one has 
apparently taken the trouble to inquire into its real attitude. By labor ele- 
ment I mean not organized labor alone, but that twenty times larger body 
that votes on civic matters. 

We have found in Worcester that this element wants two things : first, 
that everything that we do shall be open to anybody's view at any time ; 
second, that we shall really teach a trade and do it thoroughly. They object 
to our turning out " half-baked " mechanics to compete for employment 
with men who know their trade. In this I believe they are right. At 
present they are judging the efficiency of the course by its length, which is 
perhaps the only way in which they can judge it until our graduates have 
been out a few years. 

The ntamifacttirer. The objection that competition with manufac- 
turers may antagonize them is also an imaginary one. We have had more 
difficulty in keeping local manufacturers informed that we were in existence 
than we have had in avoiding competition with them. The amount of work 
required in any community to keep a trade school supplied is not likely to 
be more than a single day's work in a year for the shops in the same trades. 
We have had loyal support from local manufacturers from the time that they 
became convinced that we could and would turn out good work. 

After following so far, the reader who is actually engaged in solving the 
difficulties of a trade school will ask. What commercial work can we get 
that is practical and practicable? In answer to this question I can only tell 
what we have done and what we are aiming to do in Worcester. The suc- 
cess that we have so far met with in our efforts in this direction is sufficient 
to convince us that we can carry out our plans in the future. 



THE TRADE SCHOOL 1 95 

Our work so far is confined to machine work, pattern making, cabinet- 
making, and carpentry ; therefore I shall confine myself to these trades. In 
reviewing the work I wish to say that we by no means abhor exercises in 
their place. 

THE PLACE OF PRACTICE EXERCISES 

Outside the scope of industrial education — in art, in music, in commerce, 
in law, medicine, and religion — it has already been found that a close approx- 
imation to the methods followed by the best artists, musicians, accountants, 
lawyers, etc., in their practice is the best way to follow in the practice of the 
schools. This practice is of course accompanied by instruction, but that is 
another subject. On the other hand, in many trades, arts, and professions 
the training of hand or eye is aided by practice which is in the nature of 
exercise, and which may not have commercial value. Years ago a black- 
smith's apprentice was set to forging horseshoe nails, not because they 
could not be bought, but because in this work he spoiled less stock in 
acquiring facility with fire and hammer than in any other way. He practiced 
making welds on worthless scraps of iron until he could make welds with 
certainty. The same is true of most trades. The necessity of practice is 
evident, but the loss of material in commercial work spoiled is equally 
evident. When hard-headed business men resort to this expedient, we can 
hardly refuse to consider it, provided we consistently use it as a means 
and not as an end. 

Conceding a limited amount of practice work given the pupil, we can say 
to him that he shall have practical work as soon as he can demonstrate his 
ability to do it without excessive waste ; then it becomes necessary to pro- 
vide that practical work, and in logical sequence, though this logical sequence 
may vary with every boy and is at best a matter of judgment with the 
instructor rather than something that may be laid down beforehand. 

Speaking in the light of experience, I should say that commercial work is 
very readily found for the machine shop, with more difficulty in cabinet- 
making, and with still more difficulty in pattern making and carpentry. 
Taking these things in reverse order, we begin with : 

Carpentry. By this we mean house framing, setting of door and window 
frames, sheathing, shingling, etc., as distinguished from inside carpentry, 
house finishing, or cabinetwork. Our work along this line resolves itself 
into the building of frames for garages, cottages, etc., of commercial sizes 
and of commercial stock, which when completed may be taken down and 
sold for a trifle more than the price of the stock ; or, if no purchaser ap- 
pears, may be re-used by the next class to construct a building of somewhat 
smaller size. 



196 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Only enough sheathing is done to enable a window or door frame to be 
set, inasmuch as that work is unskilled work and is often done by laborers. 
Shingling and clapboarding under these conditions must necessarily be torn 
down and the time and a large part of the stock wasted. Shingling is never 
done in shops, but only in the field. Therefore we shall have to send our 
boys into the field to give them commercial work. So far we have only been 
able to see a possibility of this through half time or other form of cooper- 
ation with local employers. 

Pattern jnakiii^:;. The pattern-making industry is peculiar in that it is 
exclusively custom work. But one pattern is made of a piece except in 
metal pattern making, which may be classed for purposes of instruction as 
machine work. 

Ostensibly to treat all students alike, and as a matter of convenience to 
the instructor, it is usual for schools to have each pupil make a pattern for 
every job that is brought into the shop, and it may be necessary to follow 
this idea to an extent, especially at the start. 

Pattern making also has the same peculiarity as tool, jig, and fixture 
making, in that it is a means to an end rather than an end in itself. A 
pattern is a tool which a molder needs in order to produce something of 
value — a casting. It has no intrinsic value and cannot be sold in the open 
market. Therefore no one can make patterns for sale except on order. 
Taking orders for patterns is difficult because few people will order 
from jobbing shops except for rush work. A little work may be obtained 
from friendly shops in the nature of replacements of worn-out patterns, but 
this is entirely unclassified and must be taken, if taken at all, as it is offered. 
The best solution of the problem of commercial pattern making that we 
know of is to run it in connection with the machine shop and drafting room. 
A machine-shop course, as will be seen later, is a very flexible thing. 

It is possible for a shop to continue year after year bringing out new 
machines or new designs of old machines, which in time produces work of 
a highly desirable nature for both drawing room and pattern shop. By 
having a large amount of work of this nature under way in the drafting 
room it is possible to pick jobs which shall follow one another in logical 
sequence, and with as small steps as may be necessary between them for 
the individual pupil. 

It should also be borne in mind that the nature of the pattern-making 
trade does not make it necessary that as great an amount of practice should 
be given as in most other trades. The actual making of a pattern after it 
has been designed is a comparatively simple matter. The study of the 
design of patterns, working from the drawings of the machine for which 
the patterns are to be made, is the largest part of the trade and the part 



THE TRADE SCHOOL I 97 

which should receive the most attention. The method here outlined is logical 
and in line with shop practice, in that the drawing room and pattern shop 
are tributary to the machine shop. 

Cabi)iet)naking. This trade in its highest form is also custom work, and 
includes furniture and interior finish for houses, stores, offices, etc. How- 
ever, there is an abundance of work of a simple nature that is made in large 
quantities. In commercial shops this work is done on special machines with 
an astonishing rapidity which cannot, of course, be duplicated with advan- 
tage by our pupils. 

This work can be drawn largely from furniture lines, particularly drawing- 
room furniture, for bench work ; and from such work as spool and bobbin 
manufacture, handles, banisters, dumb-bells, Indian clubs, etc., for lathe 
work. It will be found that most of this work returns only the cost of stock, 
inasmuch as it competes with work done in the West, where lumber is 
cheaper than here, and the difference in freight between rough stock and 
the finished article often covers the cost of labor. 

We have done as yet very little of this work in Worcester, because of 
the press of work for our own equipment. 

We have contemplated a full set of furniture, well made, of low-price 
wood, and of artistic design, which last we are assured of by the hearty cooper- 
ation of the Worcester Art Museum. It is our intention to put this line on 
the market through all local stores that are willing to handle it at a uniform 
price and terms. We shall probably begin with the mission style and later 
develop the more elaborate types, since the latter are required to give 
varied practice. 

Machine work. This is essentially repetitive except in model and die 
making and in the manufacture of special machinery. The methods in vogue 
for production in large lots and in single units are not especially different in 
principle though they may vary in practice. Machine work may be divided 
into (i) preparation of work for machining; (2) machining; (3) erecting. 

(i) Preparation of the work. This includes deciding upon the operations 
to be performed, their order, the best machine in which to perform them, 
the laying out of the work, the setting it up on the machine, the grinding 
and setting of cutting tool, and the adjustment of speeds and feeds. This 
work varies in difficulty from the simple centering of short round stock to 
the setting up of complicated castings on planer or boring machines. In 
this connection we are trying, in Worcester, to adapt the best of scientific 
management to our needs. In doing this we are having the older boys work 
up standard practice sheets. These will ultimately cover everything that 
we do in the shops, from cutting off and centering the stock to its final 
assembling. They are being based, in the first instance, on the judgment of 



iqS examples of industrial education 

the boy, tempered by that of the instructor, and later revised in the light 
of experience. 

These standard practice sheets will be followed only until better ones 
are produced. They represent at no time the ultimate goal, but at all times 
the latest experience of boys and instructors. These sheets are made during 
what we call shop-instruction time, which occurs in the recitation week, it 
being our endeavor to put all instruction of whatever nature in that week 
and leave the shop week for the gaining of experience. In carrying out this 
latter part of the scheme we shall use the standard practice sheets as a guide 
to the students and a help to the instructors. 

(2) Machining. The classification of the chart shows many varieties of 
machine operations, practically all of which should be familiar to every boy. 
About half of these operations are found in the courses of manual-training 
and technical schools. They are generally looked upon by the school men 
as constituting the whole trade, instead of merely being one half of a small 
third of that trade. 

The process of finding work of commercial value, either for sale or for 
equipment, which shall cover all these operations is really simple. As we 
get farther on in our work we are less and less inclined to think that it is 
essential that we avoid competing with local manufacturers. In fact we 
find that they are quite generally willing to cooperate with us. Among the 
possibilities of manufacture which avoid local competition we have found : 
sensitive radial drills ; electrically driven drills, grinders, etc. ; valves ; special 
steam and water fittings ; flanges, etc. ; vises, pattern and machinist's ; lathe 
chucks, universal and plain ; drilling-machine vises ; hand milling machines ; 
profiling machines. 

We have found the following manufactures entering into competition, 
but unobjectionable : handles for machines ; change gears for lathes ; tool 
posts for lathes ; handwheels ; stock sizes of cast-iron pulleys ; collar screws ; 
collars for shafting ; lathe centers. 

Machine tools and woodworking machinery for equipment of schools 
enter into deliberate competition. 

We are now working on a hand milling machine, which we have designed 
in such a way that almost every one of these classified operations is possible 
in the course of its manufacture, although to get all these it will be neces- 
sary for us to make some parts by two different methods, one of which will 
be a better method than the other. This we do not consider objectionable, 
inasmuch as we feel that a boy who has been allowed to do work solely in 
the " best way " would inevitably fall into some of the worst ways of doing 
work when thrown on his own resources after graduation, much to his and 
our discredit. By this I mean that a boy who has always been guided is not 



THE TRADE SCHOOL 1 99 

thereby taught to guide himself — that unless he has at least had an object 
lesson in the poor ways of doing work, he will try them when he is placed on 
his own responsibility. 

MANUFACTURING PLANS 

We have no intention of confining our efforts to the manufacture of any 
one machine, but intend to conduct our work along these lines : 

9 weeks per year lathe work. 

3 weeks per year planer work. 

3 weeks per year milling. 

3 weeks per year vise and erecting. 

6 weeks per year drilling, grinding, engine room, and 
cleaning castings (one and one-half weeks each). 
We believe that each boy should go around the circuit of these processes 
once each of the four years, so for these years we must provide work of 
suitable difficulty. It will be seen from this that the character of the work 
which we can do must vary as time goes on, until we have run the school 
four years ; and it will also be seen that the amount of exercise work used 
in training may be expected to decrease as the larger variety brings with it a 
greater amount of simple work. 

We have so far followed our methods through the first eighteen months 
of a four years' course. While it is impossible to say how they will work out, 
we can say that 75 per cent of the boys who entered over a year ago are 
still with us, as against 55 per cent for the local high schools and 63 per 
cent for the country at large. We have turned out in the vicinity of five 
thousand dollars' worth of commercial work, counting equipment of salable 
quality and work in process. 

In conclusion let me say that our idea of a logical course in machine 
work covers : 

((7) A line of small machinist's tools, involving a very small outlay for 
material and consequent small risk of spoiled work and difficulty of sale. 
This work is especially for beginners. 

{b) Jobbing for local shops. This we shall have to confine to overflow 
work, and we must drop it in dull times. There are two large values in this 
work which make it attractive: (i) The fact that it is inspected by men who 
are acquainted with our boys and have no interest except to see that the 
work is right. (2) It brings local manufacturers into close touch with us and 
our work. On the other hand, we do not want to make this a large part of 
our work, because it must be done to a considerable extent when it is wanted, 
regardless of whether it best meets our immediate needs or not. A quarter 
of our work can be of this nature without harm. 



200 EXAMPLES OE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

(c) Making of equipment for ourselves, and, we hope, by a system of 
exchange, for other schools as well. 

(t/) The manufacture for the open market of (i) some light, fine machin- 
ery ; (2) medium-weight machine tools or engine work ; (3) rather heavy 
rough work, such as is offered by the local demand for rolling-mill machinery. 

(e) Jig and fixture work in the last year of the course. 

The last of the three divisions of the trade, erecting, we shall naturally 
have in connection with our manufacturing, but we also are taking second- 
hand machinery suitable, when rebuilt, for our equipment. 

This we are entirely refinishing and erecting. This work is especially 
valuable in that it teaches boys ways of doing work without having every 
facility for doing it. There is no part of our work that is more interesting 
to the boy than this. 

While it is, of course, impossible to predict the future of this or any other 
school on the basis of so short an experience, everything points to success. 
The only trouble that we can see ahead lies in the question of holding the 
boys to complete their course. We have set this at four years. Experience 
may show that three years are enough for the brighter boys, but we feel 
sure that for the average boy four years are none too many. 

When the boys find that they can get positions at half a journeyman's 
pay long before graduating, there will doubtless be a tendency to accept 
them, which will be difficult to offset without some inducement in the way 
of compensation. That bridge, however, we shall not cross until we reach it. 



CHAPTER XIV 

PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 

Cincinnati is unique among American cities, since it has a city 
university supported by taxation. Dean Herman Schneider, of 
the department of engineering of the University of Cincinnati, 
here organized in 1906 his well-known plan of cooperative edu- 
cation. This is a plan whereby the university gives certain of its 
students in engineering their book or study work, while the 
cooperative manufacturer, or group of manufacturers, provides 
facilities for the students to gain practical training in the shop. 
They work in school and in the shop during alternating 
weekly periods, and receive wages from their employers while 
in the shop. 

The plan has been thoroughly and successfully tested in 
Cincinnati, both in the university and in the high schools, and 
has been adapted to radically different conditions in other cities, 
notably in Fitchburg and Beverly, Massachusetts. As school 
conditions in both these localities are essentially typical of those 
of the average city, these adaptations will be described rather 
than the initial experiment from which they received their 
original inspiration. 

The cooperative industrial work of both school systems 
was fully explained at the 19 10 convention of the National 
Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, and Bulle- 
tin No. IS, Part HI, contains the full addresses, of which the 
following are abridgments, the descriptive portions only being 
here given. 



202 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION , 

The Fitchburg Plan 

By W. B. Hunter 

Director Industrial Department^ Fitciibiirg High School, Fitchburg, 
Massac Ji ii setts 

Mr. Daniel Simonds, president of the Simonds Manufacturing 
Company, and several other Fitchburg manufacturers, were 
present at a meeting in New York when Professor Schneider 
explained his system, and the simpHcity and practicability of 
the plan appealed to them immediately. 

Here was a method that could be adapted to high-school 
students who wished to learn a trade and continue their edu- 
cation at the same time. 

A plan was drawn up by the manufacturers for a comlDination 
shop and school course, and was presented to the school authori- 
ties, offering the use of their shops for the practical instruction of 
apprentices, if the school would provide the necessary collateral 
instruction. This the school board agreed to do, and the follow- 
ing manufacturers entered into the plan : the Simonds Manu- 
facturing Company, manufacturers of saws and knives ; the 
Fitchburg Steam Engine Company, manufacturers of steam 
engines ; the Bath Grinder Company, manufacturers of grinding 
machinery ; the Blake Steam Pump and Condenser Company, 
manufacturers of pumping machinery ; the Cowdrey Machine 
Company, manufacturers of special and woodworking ma- 
chinery ; the Putnam Machine Company, manufacturers of 
lathes, planers, railroad tools, and general machinery ; the 
Fitchburg Machine Company, manufacturers of the " LO Swing" 
lathe ; the Brown Steam Engine Company, manufacturers of 
steam engines ; the Jennison Company, tinsmiths and piping 
engineers ; and the L. H. Goodnow Company, iron founders. 
Here are shops, far superior to any trade school that can be 
conceived of, given to the city for the training of mechanics, 



PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 203 

and the city is not called upon to spend a single dollar for 
their equipment. 

The course outlined is of four years' duration, the same as 
the regular high-school course. The first year is spent wholly 
in school, and the next three years alternate weekly between 
shop and school. 

The manufacturers take the boys in pairs, so that by alternat- 
ing they have one of the pair always at work, and likewise the 
school is provided with one of the pair. 

Each Saturday morning the boy who has been at school that 
week goes to the shop in order to get hold of the job his mate 
is working on, and be ready to take it up Monday morning when 
the shop boy goes into school for a week. 

Shop work consists of instruction in all the operations nec- 
essary to the particular trade. 

Boys receive pay for the weeks they are at work at the follow- 
ing rates : for the first year, i o cents an hour ; the second year, 
1 1 cents an hour ; and the third year, I2i- cents an hour ; mak- 
ing ^5.50 a week, or ^165 for the first year; ^6.05 a week, or 
$181.50 for the second year ; and $6.87 a week, or $206.25 for 
the third year; a total of $552.75 for the three years. These 
rates are higher than the former apprentices have been receiving, 
the manufacturers having of their own accord raised the prices. 

The 20 seniors earn $4,125 

The 20 juniors earn 3)630 

The 30 sophomores earn 4,95o 

Total . ^ $12,705 

Here then is a strong inducement for the boy to continue in 
school ; he can earn some money — in fact, he gets more than 
he could by going out and taking the ordinary jobs in stores 
or offices. When there is a vacation week in school, work is 
provided in the shops. These periods add to the amount of 
money just indicated as the yearly wage. 



204 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Every candidate is given a trial period of two months, begin- 
ning immediately at the close of school in June, and if he likes 
the work and shows aptitude for the trade, he takes the course ; 
otherwise he drops out, and, if he chooses, takes up some other 
course in the high school. Thus we give the boy an opportunity 
to find himself. The course takes a boy at this critical period 
and shows him how work and education are correlated rather 
than things apart. 

Our classes have no difficulty in keeping up their social stand- 
ing. They constitute the major portion of the football, basket-ball, 
and baseball teams. They hold offices in their class organizations 
and are popular among their classmates. 

The question might be raised as to the physical strain of 
working a week in the shop with regular hours, for these boys 
have no special privileges in the shops ; they are subject to all 
of the shop rules, the same as the regular workmen. Not a sin- 
gle complaint has been made by the boys that the work is too 
hard. They come to school bright and active, and the fact that 
they have the strength and ambition to enter the various track 
events discounts any fear in that direction. 

What we believe to be a strong feature of this course is the 
agreement entered into by the boy and his employer. After he 
has had a trial period of two months, and is satisfied that he 
wants to learn a trade, his parents agree that he shall continue 
the arrangement for three years ; and the manufacturer, on his 
part, agrees to teach him the various branches of the trade des- 
ignated in this agreement. The arrangement is mutual ; each is 
bound to give the other a square deal. It is a business contract 
and means something. 

What should be taught in such a course as this ? Since the 
school term is only twenty weeks a year, it is evident that only 
such subjects as are of practical value to the student in the pur- 
suit of his livelihood, looking, of course, to advancement in that 



PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 205 

pursuit, should be included. In fact, that was the point insisted 
upon by the manufacturers — that this course be such as would 
make them better mechanics, and capable of advancing to the 
highest possibilities in the trade. Better a little done well than 
a smattering of a large variety of subjects. The regular courses 
of high-school study were discarded, precedent was ignored, and 
such subjects were selected as would fit the students to be intel- 
ligent mechanics. This is the course. 

First Year. All School Work 

English and current events 5 

Arithmetic, tables, and simple shop problems 5 

Algebra 5 

Free-hand and mechanical drawing and bench work ... 8 

Second Year. School and Shop Work 

English , 5 

Shop mathematics, algebra, and geometry 5 

Physics 4 

Civics 2 

Mechanism of machines 5 

Free-hand and mechanical drawing 6 

Third Year. School and Shop Work 

English 5 

Shop mathematics 5 

Chemistry .... - 4 

Physics 4 

Mechanism of machines 5 

First aid to injured i 

Free-hand and mechanical drawing . 6 

Fourth Year. School atid Shop Work 

English 5 

Commercial geography and business methods . . • • • 2 

Shop mathematics 4 

Mechanism of machines 4 

Physics, electricity, and heat 4 

Chemistry 6 

Free-hand and mechanical drawing 5 



2o6 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

English is taught throughout the four years. In order that 
he may speak and write intelhgently, the pupil is given forms 
of business papers, shop terms, and spelling. 

Current events and industrial history, the daily happenings in 
the industrial world, the history of the iron industry, factory 
systems, new inventions, and mechanical journals are discussed 
in order to keep in touch with mechanical affairs. 

Mathematics begin with simple propositions in mensuration, 
fractions, metric system, and circular measure. General shop 
mathematics deal with problems on cutting speeds and feeds, 
belting, gearing, strength of materials, and general cost figuring. 

Algebra is taken up to give facility in using the formulae so 
common in the trade journals and handbooks, and leads up to 
simple geometric and trigonometric formulas. 

In what we term mechanism we treat of the construction and 
uses of the various machine tools that every shop contains. The 
names and uses of every part are learned in the school as well 
as in the shop. The reasons for certain shapes of the various 
parts, kinds of material used in their construction, shapes and 
kind of tools used, and their cutting action are clearly pointed out 
in the analysis of the shop work. 

Physics is the study of the laws underlying all mechanics, 
and here again the study of working examples is emphasized 
rather than the theories of abstruse phenomena. 

Chemistry takes up the nature and qualities of metals and 
salts, tests that can ordinarily be applied to fractured metals, 
hardening and tempering processes. 

Commercial geography comprehends the study of the source 
of supply of the various industries, preparation and methods of 
transportation, cost of materials, railway systems, waterways, etc. 

First aid to the injured is made a subject of instruction. There 
is no place where accidents are more liable to happen than in 
the shop, and some knowledge of how to care for the injured is 



PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 207 

a valuable asset to the workman. The textbook of the National 
First Aid Association is used for this study. 

Drawing is the sign language of the mechanic. Almost in- 
variably, in explaining an object or piece of work, he takes his 
pencil and makes or attempts to make a drawing. Hence we 
devote a large share of our drawing period to free-hand work. 
We begin with simple objects and then take up machine parts. 
Thus the boy sees the object and at the same time becomes 
familiar with the proportions and shapes of ordinary machine 
parts. Later he draws them mechanically with instruments 
to scale. 

Civics and American history are essential to good citizenship, 
and a careful study of the city and state government is necessary 
for intelligent and progressive work. This end is what we have 
in mind when teaching this subject. 

Business methods introduce the study of the organization of 
shop systems, including the receiving of materials, laying out of 
work, tagging, hispecting, and routing of work through the shop, 
and also the consideration of general office systems. 

The workman will see the dependence of one department on 
the other, the necessity for the cooperation of all to secure good 
results. He will appreciate the cost of doing business, and he 
will see that it is not all profit ; that it costs something to erect 
and equip a manufacturing plant, conduct an ofhce, and main- 
tain a corps of salesmen and advertising agents. In short, he 
will be given an idea of the great responsibilities of the employer. 
This will help solve the labor and capital problem. 

The method pursued to put the scheme into operation was 
this : On August i, 1908, I began interviewing applicants and 
their parents. Previously the high school and the public had 
been informed that the course would start in the fall. Boys were 
selected who wished to follow the trades, and eighteen were 
chosen to start the course. By daily visits to the shops during 



2o8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

this period the necessary arrangements were made, and by the 
opening of school in September these boys were all at work. 
On the seventh of the month the boys were paired off, and 
half of them were assigned to work in the shops during the 
alternate weeks of the school \-ear while the rest came to school, 
the " pairs " changing places with each other every week. Some 
boys dropped out while others came into the course, so that our 
initial class has twenty pupils in it. 

It should be remembered that this half-school and half-shop 
year was the second year in the regular high-school course. 
Now all four classes are in operation, with 20 seniors, 20 
juniors, 30 sophomores, and 30 freshmen, making 70 boys at 
work in the shops, and 100 in the course. 

By weekly visits to the shops, and by inquiries of the boys 
during their week at school, I keep in close touch with their 
work. 

A written report of the work in the shop is also passed in on 
Monday morning of the school week, and is inspected and filed 
for reference. 

Every opportunity for questions regarding shop work is en- 
couraged in the school, and these questions are most intelligent. 
Many problems are discussed that the shop has not the time to 
consider, and the interchange of methods used in the different 
shops broadens and helps all the boys. 

We are now in our third year, and the first class will graduate 
in June, 191 1, as journeymen. The cooperative course, by the 
verdict of the students, the cooperating manufacturers, the 
school authorities, and the community, has proved an unquali- 
fied success, and there is no question in my mind but that the 
plan is the correct one to produce just the kind of workmen 
that the country demands, and give to the workman the ladder 
to climb to the highest level that his native talents and ability 
will allow. 



PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 209 

The Beverly Industrial School 

By Adelbert L. Safford 

Superintendent of Schools, Chelsea, Massaclmsetts 

I am to say a few words about the Beverly Industrial School. 
I ought perhaps to preface my remarks with the statement that 
I am not now in charge of this school, having severed my con- 
nection with the Beverly schools last August. 

To view an institution or a movement in proper perspective, 
it is often necessary to know its origin and the circumstances 
attendant upon its advent. The initial impulse that led to the 
establishment of this school arose from a purpose to promote the 
social betterment of the large number of young people who leave 
school in the later grammar-school or earlier high-school grades, 
having little or no specific preparation for earning a livelihood, 
and little immediate wealth-producing ability in any direction. 
Their unpreparedness and consequent struggle against fearful 
odds are painfully apparent to even the most casual observer. 

The actual realization of this purpose became possible through 
the cooperation of Mr. M. B. Kaven and his associates in the 
management of the United Shoe Machinery Company. These 
men, I think, were actuated by a purpose to promote on a broad 
and equitable basis any plan that tended to provide a proper 
supply of competent journeymen mechanics, who should possess 
the necessary all-round skill and experience for tool and jig 
making and for constructing experimental machines. It was no 
part of their present purpose to make foremen, engineers, or 
inventors. It was no part of their purpose to provide an excess 
of workmen to take the place of present employees at a reduced 
wage. The purpose, as in the lower industrial schools of Ger- 
many, was to fill up the " rank and file," not to provide "officers 
of the line." I received through the mail, the other day, a pam- 
phlet containing a rather elaborate, though it seemed to me a 



2IO EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

somewhat opinionated argument, tending to show that the lab- 
oratory of an institute of technology is superior to a part-time 
industrial school as an efficient means of training skilled me- 
chanics. It would have been equally to the point to have argued 
that the moon offered superior advantages as a place for teaching 
the art of aviation. How shall the aviator reach the moon ? How 
shall boys, dropping out of the grammar-school or lower high- 
school grades, past fourteen years old, generally dull at books, in 
nearly all cases without funds, reach the laboratories of an in- 
stitute of technology .-' 

The pupil entering the Beverly Industrial School must have 
reached the age of fourteen and have completed the sixth year or 
grade of the elementary schools. He must also obtain from the 
school physician a certificate to the effect that he is physically 
able to perform the work to be undertaken. Many of the pupils 
have completed the elementary school (eight years), and some 
have taken one or two years in the high school. The ages vary 
from fourteen to eighteen, but sixteen is considered the most 
favorable age for undertaking this work, and the end of the 
tenth year in school (second year of the high school) the most 
favorable place for it in the public-school curriculum. 

Very great care has been taken in the matter of vocational 
direction of candidates for this school. Many have been advised 
not to enter it. Many have been refused admission. Only those 
have been received who, after a full understanding and consul- 
tation with parents, have expressed the desire to enter with the 
determination to stay until they have learned the machinist's 
trade, and who appeared physically and mentally fit to undertake 
this task. 

The Beverly Industrial School was not established in response 
to a strong popular demand, and consequently is not yet strongly 
intrenched in the popular favor. It has been received sympathet- 
ically on the whole, though not altogether without suspicion on 



PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 21 1 

the part of a few that it was intended to benefit the manufacturer 
rather than the boy. 

Such was . not the case, and, contrary to a popular impression, 
the idea of the school and the main features of its organization 
did not originate with the United Shoe Machinery Company, 
and the United Shoe Machinery Company does not manage 
the school. The school is of course conducted in a manner to 
receive their approval as a whole, though not necessarily in 
detail. 

The school was indebted to the Fitchburg plan and the 
University of Cincinnati for the half-time idea, which was 
adopted from the start. The pupils are in two divisions of about 
forty each, which continue alternately one week at the factory 
and one week at the high school ; but at the factory they are in 
a separate department and do not come into contact with regular 
foremen or workmen, and at the high school are in separate 
classes with separate instructors, different hours, and wholly dif- 
ferent entrance requirements and course of study. This school 
is radically different from the Fitchburg plan in the fact that, 
through a unique scheme of cooperation, the trustees of the 
school retain full control of the pupils while in the factory, and 
the same person instructs a particular division in both factory 
and school. By this means the work is conducted in a way to 
contribute most effectually to the boy's progress in his trade, and 
not to suit the exigencies of the factory ; and the instruction is 
imparted by a trained teacher and not left to the uncertain ped- 
agogical ability of the ordinary foreman. Most important of all, 
it safeguards the pupils from exploitation and the manufacturers 
from unjust suspicion. The course of study is correlated with 
the shop work as the major center of correlation, and with the 
pupil's duties to himself and society as the minor center of cor- 
relation. Many of the principal features of the course of study 
were adopted from the course of study of the continuation school 



212 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

for machinists' apprentices in Munich. However, the aim has 
been to try to understand the needs of these particular boys in 
relation to the work they are to do, and to provide for these 
needs in the most direct way possible. The length of the course 
of study has not been determined, but is expected to be three or 
four years ; it will probably vary greatly with the ability of the 
pupil. Much of the instruction tends to become individual, and it 
has been found feasible to admit new pupils at any time in the year. 

The Board of Trustees was created by the following order of 
the city council of Beverly, 

On May i8, 1909, Alderman James A. Torrey introduced 
the following order in the Board of Aldermen : 

CITY OF BEVERLY 
Board of Aldermen, May 18, 1909 

Ordered, That an Independent Industrial School be and is hereby estab- 
lished in Beverly in accordance with Chapter 505 of the Acts of 1906, as 
supplemented by Chapter 572 of the Acts of 1908, for the purpose of 
instructing youths between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one years in 
day or evening classes in the machinist's trade or in such other industrial 
trades or occupations as shall be deemed expedient by the Board of Trus- 
tees of said Industrial School, and also for the purpose of instructing any 
persons already employed in the industries in evening classes in such indus- 
trial trades or occupations as shall be deemed expedient by the Board of 
Trustees of said Industrial School. 

The management and control of the Beverly Independent Industrial 
School and of all property pertaining to the same shall be vested in a Board 
of Trustees, consisting of his Honor, the Mayor of Beverly, five members 
of the Beverly School Committee, to be designated each year by the chair- 
man of the school committee, one or more citizens of Beverly, appointed 
for a term of three years by his Honor, the Mayor, as follows : Each pro- 
prietor of an industry who shall provide facilities satisfactory to the Board 
of Trustees for the practice work of pupils of the school shall be represented 
by one member of the Board of Trustees nominated by the proprietor of 
the industry and appointed by the Mayor. 

The Board of Trustees of the Beverly Independent Industrial School 
shall be authorized to accept the cooperation of the school committee, and 



PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 213 

to occupy and use school property with the permission of the school com- 
mittee, and to enter into such arrangements of cooperation with proprietors 
of the various industries as the Board of Trustees shall deem expedient. 

The Board of Trustees shall be authorized to elect a secretary and 
executive officer and all other necessary officers and teachers, and to fix 
their salaries. 

The Board of Trustees shall conduct all the affairs of the Beverly Inde- 
pendent Industrial School in such a manner as to receive the approval of 
the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, and to entitle the 
City of Beverly to be reimbursed by the Commonwealth for such portion 
of the cost of maintenance of the Industrial School as is provided by the 
laws of the Commonwealth. 

This order passed both branches without amendment, and 
was signed June 26, 1909. 

The trustees consist of the mayor, the chairman of the school 
committee, four other members of the school committee, and 
the assistant superintendent of the works of the United Shoe 
Machinery Company at Beverly. The superintendent of schools 
acts as secretary and executive officer. The assistant superin- 
tendent of the factory as chairman of the committee on instruction 
and the superintendent of schools as executive officer of the 
trustees have directed the operations of the school, subject to 
the approval of the Board of Trustees. While the management 
of this school is independent of both the factory and the high 
school, it has access to both, and shares in the facilities that 
they both offer in equipment, organization, and established stand- 
ards of discipline, workmanship, and general efficiency. It is 
of the greatest value and importance in an undertaking of this 
character to be closely associated with a school and with a factory 
with established standards. The high-school system stands for 
the best educational practice, the factory system stands for the 
best methods of manufacturing. The Industrial School to prop- 
erly fulfill its functions must measure up to both standards. 
Pedagogically it must be a good school, and industrially it must 
make efficient workmen. 



214 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



The fact should not be overlooked that such a school as the 
Beverly Industrial School can be established at almost a nominal 
expense for buildings and equipment, the providing for which 
sometimes proves to be so serious an obstacle that a beginning 
is delayed indefinitely. Also in this school not only the industrial 
experience and acumen of the manufacturer is utilized, but his 
continued interest and cooperation are assured. These, I believe, 
broadly speaking, are fundamental. If industrial education is to 
succeed generally, we shall require help from the manufacturer. 
He cannot remain passive. He must bear his part of the burden, 
both administrative and financial. Another characteristic of this 
school is that it is distinctly a public school, both at the high 
school and at the factory. In some other schools that I have 
investigated, pupils that receive instruction in a factory are 
indentured to the manufacturer, and there is not wanting the 
suspicion that in some cases the boys were exploited for the profit 
of the manufacturer. In this school there is no indenture. A 
pupil is free to leave at any time, if he thinks it advantageous. 
But most important and essential of all the general principles of 
the conduct of this school is the utilization of the product to pay 
the cost of the raw materials, and to afford the pupil remuneration 
for his labor in proportion to his competency as a workman. 
Industrial schools are bound to be expensive, and unless the prod- 
uct pays at least the cost of raw materials the necessary expense 
of such schools will be prohibitive for many municipalities for a 
long time to come. It is almost equally important that the pupil 
should have the stimulus of some remuneration for his labor. 

The general arrangement between the trustees and the United 
Shoe Machinery Company is as follows : 

The company has organized in the factory a separate depart- 
ment devoted exclusively to the school, and has equipped it fully 
with the necessary machine tools for a general machine shop, to 
accommodate about forty workmen at one time. 



PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 215 

These machines include various types of drills, millers, 
grinders, lathes ; planers, and screw machines. The operating 
accounts of this department, known in the factory as the " school 
job," are kept by the factory accounting department entirely 
distinct, as if the "school job" were a separate factory. The 
company furnishes the equipment, raw materials, and drawings 
for the work to be performed, and charges against the school 
the proper amounts for "overhead charges," i.e. power, light, 
heat, and rental of floor space and machinery, and for the 
cost of raw materials. The company also pays the school 
instructor when he is acting as foreman of the " school 
job," and debits the school account for that amount. All prod- 
uct that passes the inspection of the regular factory inspectors 
is taken by the company at established prices, determined by 
the cost of production of a like article in the factory. The 
"' school job " is credited with the value of these products. 
One half of the piece price for these products is paid to the pupils 
by the company and charged to the school account. The balance 
of the value of the product is what pays the difference in cost 
between maintaining the " school job" and any similar job in the 
factory. If in any case the " school job " shows a profit, it is 
agreed by the company that such profit shall belong to the 
school, to be distributed in increased wages or in any other way 
that the trustees may determine. Thus far there has been in 
the maintenance account a moderate deficit, which the company 
has carried. The proportion of deficit has constantly decreased 
as the pupils have become more proficient, and it seems quite 
_£ossible that the "school job" will ultimately be self-supporting. 
VVhatever may be said about the piece price as a basis for 
wages of regular workmen, it seems to the management of this 
school that it is unquestionably the best system for their pupils, 
because the pay envelope is to the boy a constant measure of his 
productive efficiency both in utilization of time and in standards 



2l6 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

of workmanship. If he wastes time, he does not turn out so 
many pieces ; if he is inaccurate in workmanship, the pieces do 
not pass inspection. Thus the importance of a proper balance 
between time and good workmanship is constantly impressed 
upon him. The hours and discipline at the factory are in general 
the same as required of regular workmen. 

At present the pupils work fifty hours a week, having a nine- 
hour day, with Saturday afternoon off. The instruction at the 
factory is of course individual, and comprises the operation of the 
different machine tools on various materials and classes of work 
and specializing on machine tools for which special aptitude 
is shown. At first the pupils at the factory manufacture simple 
machine parts, using jigs and other labor-saving devices, as in 
other parts of the factory. Gradually they learn to set up their 
own work, and as fast as they gain confidence and become 
proficient on one machine, they are changed to another. The 
machines are not taken in a particular order, and necessarily the 
different pupils are using different kinds of machines at any 
given time. As the pupils become more skillful they will manu- 
facture tools and jigs, and it is expected that eventually some 
complete machines will be built and assembled in the school 
shop, although in the factory system all machine parts are sent 
to the general stock room and assembled from that source. 

Each pupil keeps a notebook in which he writes a description 
of each article manufactured by himself, draws a free-hand me- 
chanical sketch of it with dimensions, and describes the operations 
in its manufacture and the tools used. When the week at the 
factory is over, the machinist instructor accompanies his class to 
the high school and, for the following week, gives instruction 
five hours daily in various kinds of drawing, shop mathematics, 
machine-shop practice, and notebook records of the work done 
at the factory. Other instructors from the high-school staff give 
instruction for three hours daily in science, business and social 



1 



PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 217 

practice, and in personal, social, and civic duties. Each division 
is divided into two groups, somewhat according to proficiency, 
and one class usually studies while the other recites, after the 
manner of the elementary schools. 

There are many advantages in this plan of having the 
machinist instructor accompany his class at both school and 
factory. The theoretical work can be made more available for 
immediate application, and the shop work can be done with a 
more intelligent regard for the principles, mathematical or 
otherwise, that underlie it. The dual experience is good for 
the instructor. The work at the factory keeps him from imprac- 
tical theoretical instruction in the school, and the teaching in the 
school gives him the pedagogical insight necessary to avoid 
being a superficial and ineffective instructor in the shop. The, 
school day for these pupils approximates the factory day, and 
is about eight hours, with the Saturday holiday and no home 
lessons. All studying is to be done at the school. 

The machinist instructor has charge of the class from 8 a.m. 
to 12 M. and from i to 2 p.m. Part-time specialists have charge 
of the class from 2 to 5 p.m. In general the machinist instructor 
teaches the subjects belonging to the major center of correlation, 
the shop work ; while the special part-time instructors deal with 
the subjects belonging to the minor center of correlation, the 
pupil's obligations to himself and to society. The course of study 
for this industrial school is still in the making, but certain gen- 
eral lines of study have been laid down that seem permanent, 
and certain principles applied that appear to be fundamental. 
Two chief considerations must determine the choice of subjects 
to be taught in an industrial school — the demands of the trade, 
and the personal, social, and civic responsibility of the man. 

At the beginning and until the pupil has had considerable 
shop experience there should be no formal development of 
the topics in logical order, as in the ordinary textbook. The 



2i8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

substance of the instruction should be the real problem, not its 
shadow or imitation from a textbook. In other words, science, 
mathematics, and drawing should be begun as they are applied 
in that industry. Formal and systematic treatment by develop- 
ment in logical order should be reserved to the most advanced 
years of the course, if introduced at all. There is danger of 
erring in this matter, especially on the part of high schools 
offering vocational courses, or any school in which the teachers 
have not practiced the trade for which they are preparing the 
pupils. If time permitted, I should be glad to speak of the treat- 
ment of some of the subjects in detail. I will merely allude to 
a few points that seem distinctive. Drawing is divided into (i) 
mechanical sketching ; (2) working drawings to scale ; (3) per- 
spective ; (4) free-hand industrial drawing ; color and design ; 
(5) machine design. Considerable stress has been laid on the 
mechanical sketch as fundamental. These sketches may be made 
free-hand or with the use of the ruler and simple instruments, 
but are not to be drawn to scale. Coordinate paper may be used 
in order to approximate scale if desired, but it is not necessary. 
All dimensions required for making a complete working drawing 
to scale, with as many different views as necessary, are to be in- 
dicated in figures on the mechanical sketch, so that no reference 
to the object will be necessary while making the working drawing. 

The ability to make such a sketch is of greater value in itself 
to the workman than the making of working drawings. Also 
the ability to make a quick sketch of the essential features of 
a complete machine, to show " what it looks like " and '" how it 
works," is of great value to any one. 

The working drawing begins from the start with drawings of 
simple machine parts, in accordance with the system in vogue 
in the drafting department of the factory. 

I would like to speak of mathematics and instruments of 
precision, of current and historical machinists' literature, and 



PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 219 

of lectures on modern machine-shop practice, but time forbids. 
Science is treated on the same principle as the mathematics ; 
first the applied and then the theoretical, or rather the theo- 
retical through the concrete. The general topics are mechanics ; 
electricity as applied to machinery either as a power or in a 
process ; chemistry of steels and other materials, and of their 
manipulations as in tempering ; also lubricants and cooling 
mixtures. 

The remaining topics are not particularly related to the 
trade, but they are dealt with in the most direct and practical 
way that we are able to devise. They are grouped under the 
general heads of business and social forms and practices, and 
personal, social, and civic duties. 

In conclusion, let me recapitulate and emphasize a few fea- 
tures of the school that seem to us good and important, and 
speak of a few difficulties which we have encountered. 

(i) This school has the best educational talent and facilities 
of the city associated with the best industrial talent and facilities, 
in harmonious cooperation. There has been no friction. The 
plan works. The school work is standardized by contact with an 
established school, and the shop practice by contact with an 
established factory. 

(2) The boys in the factory are together under the direction 
of the regular machinist instructor, who is employed by the school. 
The Board of Trustees is responsible for the proper manage- 
ment of the practice shop. Of necessity the methods of work 
conform to the practices of the factory, as they ought, but in case 
of any dispute the authority of the trustees is absolute, except 
that the company, of course, has the right to withdraw altogether 
from the arrangement. 

(3) In general, the workmen have looked with favor on this 
school. From a third to a half of the pupils are sons or close 
relatives of workmen in the factory. Organized labor has been 



2 20 EXAMPLES OE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

inclined to favor the Beverly plan, because of full control by 
public authority. 

(4) The absence of indenture is in keeping with a democratic 
spirit and a truly public school. The piece price, besides its other 
advantages, makes indenture unnecessary. 

(5) Half-time for classroom work is not unique, but it is 
about the right amount and should be emphasized because some 
schools give less. 

(6) A salable product is necessary partly to remunerate the 
boy, partly to reduce the cost of the school, but chiefly to put to 
the test day by day the boy's actual productive ability. 

(7) The plan of having the machinist instructor accompany 
the class in both school and factory is desirable for many reasons. 

(8) The general scope of the course of study seems to be 
sufficient. The whole career of the school has been singularly 
free from friction or controversy. 

But we have our troubles. The school has not yet passed the 
experimental stage. It has not yet fully achieved the standards 
that it has set for itself, and of course there are a multitude of 
details of curriculum and practice to be worked out and stand- 
ardized. The first great danger to this school is a certain amount 
of inertia and indifference on the part of the general public. If 
the school should "" strike a snag," nobody knows what attitude 
the public would take. Serious consequences might result 
from the lack of the right kind of strong public support. A 
second difficulty is the large expense of such a school. With the 
shop practice self-supporting, it cost $80 a pupil last year. The 
machinist instructors receive from $30 to $35 per week, and 
the part-time specialists, $1 or $1.50 an hour for fifteen hours 
per week ; and there are fifty weeks in the school year. The 
greatest difficulty of all has been to secure suitable teachers. 
The two machinist instructors were chosen from the thirty-five 
hundred employees of this company, and there were less than 



PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS 22 1 

half a dozen that we felt we could consider at all. The part- 
time specialists are mainly high-school teachers already fully 
employed, who were drafted into service to meet the need. It 
ought also to be confessed that we have not yet achieved in the 
industrial school the strong moral atmosphere and the social and 
aesthetic ideals that are the goal of the public school. The moral 
fiber of the boys is the same, but there is a certain abandon that 
smacks of the factory rather than the school. 

But despite these and other troubles, we believe the Beverly 
experiment is a long step in the right direction. 

A comparison of the two plans described above is interesting. 
It should be noted that the former places great value on the 
binding agreement between employer and pupil, while the latter 
states that it is better for the pupil to be left free or to be 
subject only to the control of the trustees. 

It should be recalled that organized labor has officially placed 
itself on record ^ as strongly opposed to the cooperative plan 
of industrial education. It is believed that labor will find little 
to criticize in the Beverly plan, with its absence of the inden- 
ture, its " piece work," and its domination by the educational 
authorities. 

The author is inclined to think that Mr. Safford's exposition 
of the advantages and disadvantages of the cooperative plan is 
the most careful, discriminating, and impartial statement of this 
subject which has yet appeared. The description of the school 
is accurate. 

The part-time plan of eflucation is one which is susceptible 
of adaptation to such widely diverse conditions that there can 
be little doubt of its ultimate adoption by many schools. It 

1 See " Industrial Education," p. ii, published by the American Federation 
of Labor, Washington, D.C. It should be said that labor is not a unit on this 
question, and that prominent representatives of labor have publicly indorsed 
the work in Cincinnati and even in Fitchburg. 



222 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

lends itself, perhaps better than any other plan, to the limitations 
of the small town or village. One might almost say that wher- 
ever two boys could be " paired," and one employer could be 
found who would work them alternately, any school, except the 
most conservative and inflexible, could inaugurate a system of 
part-time cooperative education. The plan has been put into 
practice not only in connection with large machine-making 
industrial concerns, but also in the textile industry, in office 
work, and even in agriculture. 



CHAPTER XV 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 

It should be recalled that our problem is an extremely large 
and complicated one, and that, with all possible agencies at work, 
we shall still have boys and girls forced into the industrial market 
with inadequate preparation and small appreciation of the nature 
of life's economic problem. 

The continuation school is planned to administer to the needs 
of such boys and girls. The state proposes to retain an interest 
in them for a longer period, and to assume more responsibility 
for their success and happiness. 

Such a plan contemplates the cooperation of the school, 
the employer, and the community, and its success depends upon 
a keen civic consciousness, and especially upon some strong per- 
sonality to awaken that consciousness and to direct subsequent 
action. It is to be doubted whether the continuation schools of 
Munich would have attained such conspicuous success without 
the guiding interest and the optimistic personality of Dr. 
Kerschensteiner. As it is, they stand as the best examples 
of this type of school. 

Wherever the industries of a community are sufficiently 
homogeneous, or where any industry or group of industries can 
decide on a body of knowledge which it would be desirable 
for their operatives to acquire, and especially wherever the super- 
intendent of schools is able and willing to secure the necessary 
conditions of cooperation, the continuation school should have 
wide usefulness. 

223 



2 24 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

CixcixNATi, Ohio 

The most striking example of continuation schools in this 
country is that afforded by the city of Cincinnati. In an address 
before the National Society for the I'romotion of Industrial 
Education, Boston, November i8, 1910, Mr. Frank B. Dyer, 
superintendent of schools, described the opportunities in that 
city for obtaining an industrial education. After speaking of 
the establishment of the part-time cooperative plan for which 
Cincinnati is so well known, and the new vocational high schools 
which have still further utilized that plan, he explained the 
purpose and described the operation of the continuation schools 
as follows : 

" Of course the school shops run at night and are open to adult 
workers and also to apprentices. There are twenty-four hun- 
dred enrolled at present in the industrial night classes. It was 
soon found, however, that night work does not attract the ap- 
prentice. Concentrated attention to a machine for ten hours 
lea\es little siu'plus energy to draw on at night. A city offers 
many attractions more alluring to a young mechanic than a night 
school. After repeated and urgent advertising in shops we were 
able to get less than eight hundred apprentices in the iron 
industry who would settle down to regular night instruction. 
For example, we got twenty-six pattern-maker's apprentices, 
and those dwindled to sixteen. They were not to blame. They 
had not the physical endurance. 

"Thus we came to see that the apprentice is distinctly a day- 
time proposition. His education must be given not in addition 
to his work but in the place of a part of his work. Some of 
the progressive manufacturers of our city, realizing this, intro- 
duced apprentices' schools in their factories, but they found 
themselves unable, single-handed, to cope successfully with the 
situation for many reasons. An agreement was finally made 



THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 225 

with the Board of Education to estabhsh a day school for 
machine-shop apprentices. The plan was submitted to the 
Central Labor Council, to a committee of manufacturers, and 
to the Board of Education, and received the approval of all. 

" The continuation school for machine-shop apprentices was 
opened September i, 1909. It runs forty-eight weeks a year, 
eight hours a day, for four and one-half days a week, besides two 
half days which are spent by the teachers in visiting the boys 
in the shops, seeing the conditions under which they work, 
consulting with the foreman about their needs, and getting ideas 
and materials for guidance in teaching. This is an essential part 
of their work, for there is no handed-down course of study as 
yet. It must be worked out as they go along. 

" The students keep a complete file of their work, so that the 
details of the course lie behind them instead of ahead of them. 
The course runs through four years, and consists of one hour of 
blue-print reading and free-hand and mechanical drawing, one 
hour of practical mathematics, one hour of shop science and 
theory, and one hour for reading, English, spelling, commercial 
geography, and civics ; the last hour takes the form of stere- 
opticon talks, readings from industrial history, biography, and 
geography, and discussion of civic and labor questions. 

"There are about two hundred students, divided into nine 
groups, according to proficiency. They come one half day, four 
hours a week, and are paid their usual wage for attendance by 
their employer,^ and are docked for absence. The least mature 
boys come on Monday, the most mature on Friday, and graded 
groups between. 

" The grading of the students must be somewhat elastic, 
owing to the difficulty of arranging a program for the individual 
boy that will best suit the convenience of the manufacturer, and 
also owing to the great differences in the mental attainments of 
the boys — some having been in high school and some not able 



2 26 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

to repeat the multiplication table or spell the names of the days 
of the week. This necessitates having two teachers to a group 
of twenty or twenty-five, one to conduct the general work and 
the other to give much individual instruction. 

" The entire cost of the school is about three thousand 
dollars a year, or about fifteen dollars a pupil, on the basis of 
the average number in attendance. 

" Strange as it may seem, the chief difficulty encountered 
in the operation of public schools for apprentices is not in 
securing the interest of the employers, the approval of labor 
organizations, the willingness of boys to come, or the necessary 
funds from the Board of Education ; the chief difficulty is in 
securing properly qualified teachers — teachers who will com- 
mand the confidence of foremen and employers by their knowl- 
edge of shop conditions, who will secure the interest of boys by 
their enthusiasm and skill in instruction, and who at the same 
time meet the demands of school authorities as to scholarship 
and character. We must steer clear of the charlatan on the 
one hand, and, on the other hand, of the school pedant, who has' 
knowledge in water-tight compartments. After corresponding 
with technical schools all over the country and finding no suitable 
person, I decided to study the shop men of our own city, and 
found a man who had worked nine years in the shops and had 
left to prepare to be a teacher. His old love for the shop came 
back to him, and he had been for several years teaching appren- 
tices. He had worked over his whole scholastic outfit in terms 
of shop practice. He had studied the machines to see the prob- 
lems they presented in mathematics, science, and drawing. 
Elimination of waste and economy of output was the guiding 
principle of his investigation and instruction. He trains his own 
teachers, and now has three under way, who are assisting by 
night or day. 

" The school operates at night for the improvement of adult 



THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 227 

machinists. On Friday night the class is composed of foremen, 
thirty-two at present, and their discussions illuminate all phases 
of shop work. 

" The work of the school is closely applied to the work of 
the shop. It is designed for the intellectual improvement of the 
boys and to give them intelligent interest in what they do in 
the shop, but there is no machine work in the school. For ex- 
ample, suppose the drill press is under consideration. The boys 
first read the catalogue description (catalogues are supplied in 
sets of twenty-five by the manufacturers). The technical names 
of parts are noted. Different machines are compared and their 
respective merits examined. The scientific principles involved 
in their operation are described. This leads naturally to a study 
of the blue prints, which are supplied by the manufacturers. 
This is followed by free-hand drawings of some parts of the 
machine. In the discussion the mathematical relations receive 
especial consideration. For instance, the speed of the spindle 
as determined by the relation of the diameters of the cone pul- 
leys is a problem in complex fractions, and the boys for the first 
time in their lives discover the use of what in their early school 
days was a senseless puzzle. An hour's lesson on complex frac- 
tions follows, using an arithmetic first and then a prepared sheet 
of exercises applied to the drill press. These lessons are prepared 
beforehand with great care by the teachers. A blue print of 
each lesson, with the details to be worked out clearly indicated, 
is placed in the hands of each pupil, so that there is no waste 
of time. These when filled complete what the boys call " dope 
sheets," and are filed by each boy in a large envelope. The 
exercises are arranged in sequence, so as to conduct the boys 
through arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, using 
only those parts that have practical application in the shop, with 
such essential principles as are necessary for an understanding 
of the shop problem. 



2 28 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

" The above description will apply fairl)' closely to two or 
three of the four hours' work a day. The last hour, as indicated 
before, is recreational, inspirational, informational, and cultural. 
A piano is provided, a stereopticon with hundreds of slides, maps, 
and charts, also sets of books on civics and industrial biography, 
and so forth. 

" The employers and foremen say there is no loss in output 
by the boys' being out one half day a week. They more than 
make up for the absence by their diligence and zeal wlien they 
are at work. When they start to school they are as a rule de- 
pressed, indifferent, disgruntled. They look upon their employer 
as an aristocrat, their foreman as a slave driver, their machine 
as a treadmill, and the world at large as against them. Their 
faces are frozen in a perpetual grouch. The path to advancement 
seems long and uncertain. As they feel mind and body settling 
in a groove they become rebelli<ius and ready to quit. The 
school comes as a new interest in their lives. They can scarcely 
realize at first that anybody cares, but soon they thaw out and 
a new light shines in their eyes. They see for the first time the 
purpose of instruction which bored them in school days. They 
have a motive. They can put their knowledge to use. They 
become interested and intellectually awakened. Their attitude 
changes toward their employer, their foreman, their machine, 
the world. They are no longer mere hands, cubs, operatives ; 
they are becoming masters of an honorable craft. As they are 
induced to go from one shop to another they have been known 
to make it a condition that they be permitted to attend the 
continuation schc^ol. 

"' The Board of Education, and others in our city who have 
seen the effect of this school on the boys, persuaded the Ohio 
legislature last spring to pass a law authorizing boards of educa- 
tion to establish continuation schools, and requiring the attendance 
in daytime, not to exceed eight hours a w'eek, of all who go to 



I 



THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 



229 



work under sixteen years of age. The Cincinnati Board has 
set aside fifteen thousand dollars to put this law into operation 
in the year 191 1. It is therefore evident that our experience 
gives us faith in the idea. We purpose in Cincinnati to open 
two classes of continuation schools : one compulsory, for those 
who are under sixteen ; the other voluntary, for those who are 
apprenticed. The plans are now ready to open such a school 
in salesmanship for girls in stores.^ 

" It seems strange that all oversight of children ceases when 
they go to work, strange that the state has not considered it 
a duty to look after their education at the critical period of their 
existence. Then, if ever, they need moral guidance and ideals 
kept steadily before them. That is the time they feel their de- 
ficiencies and need instruction and direction. Then they need 
to be taught to apply what they know to a practical situation. 
Then their attitude is determined, and they will become mere 
drudges, shirks, and outcasts, or will acquire that joy in work 
which will transform their task into an interesting vocation and 
themselves into interested and ambitious craftsmen. As I see 
it, we should not wait for trade schools to catch boys and lead 
them to a vocation. We must catch the boys and girls when 
they go to work, letting them get their skill under commercial 
conditions, but supplementing it, as they go along, with the 
guidance and instruction they need in this crisis of their lives." 

Cleveland, Ohio 

Acting under the new state law relating to continuation 
schools, Cleveland has established fourteen centers for carrying 
on such work. 

Under this law the city is permitted to establish continuation 
schools, and to require the attendance of all children who go to 
work between fourteen and sixteen without having passed the 

^ AH of these plans were brought to fruition during the fall and winter of 191 1 . 



230 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

elementary grades. In Cleveland the minimum amount of con- 
tinuation-school work is fixed at six hours a week. This may 
all be taken in one day, or the pupil may attend two three-hour 
sessions held on different days. In any event the work must 
all be done between 8 a.m. and 5 p.m. 

Boston, Massachusetts 

The following quotations from documents issued from time 
to time by the School Committee of Boston, show the history 
and the present status of the continuation-school movement in 
that city. 

While the examples given are of commercial rather than of 
industrial education, the methods employed are of interest. As 
they differ in some important respects from the Cincinnati plan, 
they are noted in this connection. 

The question of establishing continuation schools, modeled to some extent 
after the plan of schools of that name which have been successfully con- 
ducted in Europe, and especially in Germany, has been under consideration 
by the School Committee of Boston for more than a year. The object of 
such schools is to provide for young men and women an opportunity to 
improve their knowledge of the business in which they are engaged, and 
to increase their industrial efficiency. The schools require the cooperation 
of employers in permitting their employees to attend during working hours 
and without loss of pay, and much interest is being shown in them by the 
education committees of Boston's various trade organizations. 

Early in May, 1 909, the committee passed an order instructing the super- 
intendent to invite the cooperation of merchants and manufacturers in the 
project. 

A room about 30 x 40 feet, with a small office adjoining, was rented at 
No. 91 Bedford Street (a location convenient to both the retail and whole- 
sale business districts) at a cost of $125 per month, and was fitted up with 
forty regular schoolroom desks, extra chairs, tables, portable blackboards, 
and maps, at a cost of about $260. The only expense assumed by the School 
Committee has been the salary of Mr. Field (director of evening and con- 
tinuation schools), who has charge of the work, the rental of rooms, the 
cost of janitor service, and the necessary fittings. All other expenses have 
been borne by the business firms interested in the schools. 



THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 23 1 

SHOE-AND-LEATHER SCHOOL 

It was decided that the shoe-and-leather industry offered the most prom- 
ising opportunity for the establishment of the initial course, and the directors 
of the New England Shoe and Leather Association promptly and cordially 
offered the cooperation of that organization. 

The class began its sessions on April 5, 1910, meeting in the above- 
named rooms on Tuesday and Thursday afternoons from 3 to 5 o'clock, 
the term being for ten consecutive weeks. 

DRY-GOODS SCHOOL 

On April 11, 19 10, a course for employees in the dry-goods business 
was opened in the above-named rooms. The sessions of this class are held 
on Monday and Friday afternoons from 3 to 5 o'clock, and are to continue 
for ten consecutive weeks. 

Pupils in shoe-and-leather and dry-goods classes are young men from 
wholesale and retail houses, many of them being salesmen who are pre- 
paring for still higher positions, such as road salesman, buyer, etc. 

The instruction is given by employers and experts in each industry, 
under the direction of Mr. Field and an advisory committee of prominent 
representatives of the industry in Boston. 

PREPARATORY-SALESMANSHIP SCPIOOL 

Two classes in preparatory salesmanship were also established at Nd, 
91 Bedford Street: one for boys, opening on April 12, and holding its 
sessions from 8.30 to 1 1 o'clock a.m. on Tuesdays and Thursdays ; and the 
other for girls, opening on April 13, and meeting at the same hours on 
Wednesday and Friday mornings, the term of both classes being ten weeks. 

Pupils in the preparatory-salesmanship classes are boys and girls work- 
ing as stock clerks, bundle clerks, auditors, cashiers, and the like, in retail 
stores. They are preparing for promotion to the position of salesman. To 
these two classes pupils over eighteen years of age are not admitted. 

An advisory committee of business men has also been established for 
these classes. The instruction is given principally by a teacher in one of 
the public schools, especially fitted for the work, and whose compensation 
is assumed by the various business houses whose employees attend the 
class. Her instruction is supplemented by frequent talks by heads of de- 
partments and other experts in the employ of various dry-goods houses. 

The principal feature of the instruction in all these classes is the practical 
talks and lectures, each one hour in length, given by men who have built 



232 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

up large business enterprises, and by skilled men in their employ. These 
lectures are stenographically reported, and have been published to some 
extent in trade papers, such as the Boot and Shoe Recorder, Shoe and 
Leather Reporter, and American Shoeniaking. The instruction in sales- 
manship is of a more elementary character and is not reported. 

The various lecturers bring large quantities of material to the classes for 
illustrating their talks. This material includes leathers, shoes, and fabrics, 
in all stages of their manufacture. They also make considerable use of the 
blackboard. 

All pupils have become members of the class through their own initiative 
or at the suggestion of their employers. They show a very remarkable in- 
terest in these talks, and frequently spend their noon hour at the school 
studying the stenographic reports. Many have already visited manufactories 
to study processes, and members of the dry-goods course have spent many 
of their evenings at the Textile Exhibit in Mechanics Building. 

The members of the classes are required to write theses, which arc always 
on file for the inspection of their employers. Those who satisfactorily com- 
plete a course will be granted a certificate of proficiency. 

It has not been considered wise, for the present at least, to establish any 
age limits for pupils attending these classes, except that no pupils over 
eighteen years of age are admitted to the classes in preparatory salesmanship. 
The ages of the pupils in the other classes range from fifteen or seventeen 
to twenty-eight or thirty. Some of the pupils are extremely well educated, 
and are college graduates, but the majority have not graduated from the 
high school. Each class is composed of from forty to fifty pupils. The at- 
tendance averages about 98 per cent, and no disciplinary requirements 
are necessary. 

A recent circular shows that the above-mentioned classes and 
also a new class in banking are now held at 48 Boylston Street. 

Another circular announces the organization of a class in 
household arts as follows : 

The Boston School Committee has authorized the organization of courses 
in household arts for young women and girls. 

These classes will open at 52 Tileston Street, Boston, during the week 
of February 12, 191 2. 

There will be a two-hour lesson twice each week. 

Employers give this opportunity to their help during working hours 
without loss of pay. 

The instruction will consist of lessons in plain cooking, marketing, home 



J 



THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 233 

furnishing and decoration, care of the home, household economy, selection 
and care of clothing, personal and home hygiene, and general efificiency. 

An apartment has been secured and equipped especially for this purpose. 

Boston is thus meeting a real need in the establishment of these schools. 
They are schools for working people, held during business hours, in the 
locality of their employment, affording opportunity for instruction under the 
most favorable conditions. A maximum number is served at a minimum 
waste of time in travel ; a close specialization of subjects is possible ; the 
pupil is continually applying the theory of the classroom to practical prob- 
lems in the store or factory ; and the instruction satisfies the needs of the 
pupil's greatest and most vital interest, for it is enlivening and dignifying 
his daily task. The youth is not preparing for some indefinite job that he 
may never get ; he has the job already, and he aims to increase his efficiency 
in that position. He is not accumulating knowledge that will be forgotten 
before he has a chance to apply it ; he is learning the meaning of problems 
and conditions which are being worked out about him on a commercial 
basis day by day. He sees the relation of his duties to the industry as a 
whole, and he finds in the school an avenue of self-expression where he 
feels that he can show his ability. 

COURSES OF STUDY 

Shoe-and-Leather School 

The production and distribution of leather ; tanning process ; leather 
manufacture ; recognition of kinds, grades, and comparative values of 
leather ; manufacture and classification of shoes ; salesmanship ; efficiency 
training ; visits to industrial plants. 

Dry-Goods School 
Fibers ; cotton and cotton goods ; wool, worsteds, and woolens ; silk 
and silk fabrics ; linen and linen fabrics ; recognition and comparison of 
mixed fabrics ; simple tests for determining quality ; coloring materials and 
color preservation ; shrinking ; mercerization ; noninflammable fabrics ; care 
of stock ; commercial arithmetic ; commercial geography ; commercial cor- 
respondence ; salesmanship ; efficiency training. 

Preparatory-Salesmanship School 
Commercial correspondence ; facility in oral and written expression ; 
store arithmetic ; sales-slip practice ; sources of merchandise and its distri- 
bution ; raw materials ; textiles ; penmanship ; color and design ; hygiene ; 
practical talks on the fundamental principles of success ; salesmanship. 



2 34 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Banking School 

Brief history of banking ; different classes of banks and their relation to 
each other ; department work ; correspondence ; notes, — usury, protest, 
discount ; currency ; foreign monetary systems ; circulation ; credit ; clear- 
ing houses ; stocks and bonds ; brokers ; the Stock Exchange ; foreign and 
domestic exchange ; funds and funding systems ; efficiency training. 

The length of the courses at the present time is fifteen weeks, and two 
courses are given each year. The first opens early in October and the second 
in the middle of February. 

Pupils from retail stores usually have their sessions in the morning from 
8.30 to 11.00 o'clock; pupils from the wholesale stores usually have their 
sessions in the afternoon from 3.30 to 5.30 o'clock. 



CHAPTER XVI 

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

Vocational guidance will, of necessity, follow closely upon the 
introduction of vocational education, and the ultimate success of 
either one will depend in no small degree upon the ability of 
the school system to furnish some measure of the other. 

The first school system in the country to attempt to fulfill this 
new function of education, at least in a systematic way, was that 
of Boston. At the First National Conference on Vocational 
Guidance, held in Boston, November, 19 lo, Mr, Stratton D. 
Brooks, then superintendent of public schools, described the 
purpose and the methods of the work thus far accomplished. 
The complete paper is given below. 

The Vocation Bureau to which Mr. Brooks refers was founded 
by Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw in January, 1908, on plans drawn up 
by the late Dr. Frank Parsons. Dr. Parsons's book " Choosing a 
Vocation," and a volume by Meyer Bloomfield, the present direc- 
tor of the bureau, entitled " The Vocational Guidance of Youth," 
will be found of great value to- students of this new movement. 

Referring again to the fact that this work was made possible 
by the generosity of Mrs. Shaw, one must recall the active part 
taken by this wise philanthropist in the establishment of the 
kindergartens in the United States, and her later support of the 
sloyd movement, which so profoundly modified manual training 
throughout the country. It seems probable that this latest ad- 
dition to the duties of the schools will ultimately produce as rad- 
ical modifications in their methods and ideals as have resulted 
from the introduction of the kindergarten and manual training. 

235 



236 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Vocational Guidance ^ 

By Stratton D. Brooks 

Foniici'ly Sitpcriiitcjidoit of F'liblic Schools, Boston, MassacJiuscits 

At the outset I wish to distinguish between vocational place- 
ment and vocational guidance. By vocational placement I mean 
fitting a job to the attainments that a boy now has. By voca- 
tional guidance I mean fitting a boy to a job that he will at some 
future time be able to fill, if he follows the course of instruction 
outlined by his vocational adviser. Vocational placement finds 
a job now better fitted to the boy's present attainments than he 
would otherwise be likely to find. Vocational guidance fits the 
boy for a better job in the future by training him along the 
lines of his greatest aptitudes and opportunities. Both consider 
the boy's abilities : one for the purpose of making the best pos- 
sible present use of them ; the other with a view to giving them 
additional development, in order to secure in the future a still 
greater use of them. It is this latter phase of vocational guidance 
that is discussed here. 

Educational methods and educational machinery are- being 
overhauled in the light of a new purpose, namely, the more 
specific preparation of pupils for particular vocations in life. 
The most important immediate effect of the movement for in- 
dustrial education has been to move forward suddenly the time 
of choice, and it is this necessity to choose early a definite career 
that renders desirable a consideration of vocational direction. 

The schools of the past have presented the same type of edu- 
cation for all pupils, and vocational direction consisted mainly 
in advising a boy to take or not to take additional education. 
But under the new conditions, vocational direction will not only 
be concerned with advising a boy to take additional education 

^ Read at the First National Conference on Vocational Guidance, Boston, 
November, 1910. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 237 

but with deciding what particular kind of additional education 
he should take in order to be of greatest service to himself and 
to the community. 

Formerly a teacher might, with a clear conscience, advise a 
boy to take a high-school course, or go to college even, to prepare 
for medicine or law, for the education offered in high school or 
college was so general in character and so wide of application 
that, whatever the boy's future vocation, he was almost sure to 
succeed better in it because of his extended training. Further- 
more, the final entry into the medical school or the law school 
came at so late a date that any change of interest or error in the 
estimate of the boy's ability had time to show itself. But he 
who in these days of special education advises a boy to enter 
some particular trade, and selects for him a course of study 
restricted to the practical elements of that trade, may not give 
advice lightly, for the possibilities of error are increased a hun- 
dredfold, while the possibilities of correcting an error, if made, 
are almost nonexistent. 

The new element in the situation, and the one that causes the 
chief difficulty, because of the establishment of specific indus- 
trial schools, is that the avowed purpose of industrial education 
is to prepare for a specific end, and in order to be valuable and 
effective to that end it must be restrictive in nature. Cultural 
education is criticized because, though good, it is not good for 
anything particular, while industrial education is praised be- 
cause it is not only good, but good for something. When con- 
sidered from the point of view of vocational advice, however, 
the chief trouble is that industrial education, though good for 
something, is only good for some one thing ; and in proportion 
as it succeeds, it limits, for the boy or girl who receives it, the 
possibility of success in any other line of endeavor. He who 
enters upon a successful industrial training, especially of the 
lower and more specific type, becomes by that very education 



238 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

less fitted for entrance upon a different work. In case events 
show that the boy is not quahfied for the work selected, there 
is little opportunity to correct the error. To advise a boy to 
take up a restrictive educational course is a matter requiring 
much graver consideration than to advise him to take a non-' 
restrictive course ; and vocational direction, therefore, attains an 
importance that it has not hitherto had. 

The chief motto of vocational direction in the past has been, 
" Aim at the highest." There are those who call our present 
educational system a failure, on the ground that we have at- 
tempted to educate every boy to become a president of the 
United States. But the man who should seriously criticize the 
school for stating as its aim the education of presidents would 
fail to recognize that the statement is but the embodiment of 
the general principle that every boy shall have the incentive and 
the opportunity to reach the highest development of which he is 
capable. It will be unfortunate indeed when American education 
ceases to encourage every one to take active part in democratic 
citizenship, and to feel honored by the opportunity to render 
public service. It is undoubtedly true that intellectual superi- 
ority has received greater recognition in the schools than mechani- 
cal skill ; but it is also true that the same difference has existed 
in the world at large, and that it will probably continue to exist. 

To-day we face a new situation. The demand for more skill- 
ful workmen is upon us, and the people are asking the schools 
to solve the question. What I want to keep clearly in mind, 
however, is that this ought not to be a demand for a substitute 
education but for a sjipplcvicntary education ; that the error of 
the school in the past in pointing every pupil toward academic 
callings would be repeated in even a worse way if it should 
now attempt to place every boy in a mechanical trade. 

There is less danger to society from men who have aimed 
high and failed because of their own lack of ability, than there is 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 239 

from able and ambitious men who writhe under an apparently- 
unjust discrimination of society that gives greater rewards to 
other men naturally no more richly endowed. 

But whether we favor or disapprove, it seems evident that 
industrial education will go forward, and that in the larger 
cities, at least, separate schools will undoubtedly be established, 
wherein each class of pupils may receive whatever type of ele- 
mentary industrial instruction the combined wisdom of the citi- 
zens, the school committee, and the teachers determine to be 
best suited to the purpose in hand. The introduction of sepa- 
rate schools will bring upon the American people a new and 
serious problem, namely, the necessity of an early choice of a 
vocation. Reliable information and competent advice must be 
furnished, both to children and to adults, showing what voca- 
tions are open to children, what conditions prevail in each, and 
what the rewards of success may be. 

In view of these needs, we have been endeavoring in Boston 
to establish vocational direction on a satisfactory foundation. 
I wish to state briefly what has been attempted. 

Boston is fortunate in having a group of liberal-minded men 
and women through whose generosity the Vocation Bureau has 
\ been established and maintained. The Boston School Com- 
j mittee has invited the cooperation of the Vocation Bureau, and 
\ the director of this bureau has worked hand in hand with the 
'Vocation Direction Committee of the Public Schools — a com- 
mittee appointed by the superintendent and consisting of mas- 
ters and submasters in the Boston schools. Among the many 
activities of the Vocation Bureau, I mention three : first, the 
investigation of conditions in the trades and businesses of 
Boston. The bureau has undertaken to prepare material for the 
use of pupils, parents, and vocational counselors, that will fur- 
nish the best available information with reference to the voca- 
tional opportunities that exist in Boston. Second, the Vocation 



240 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



Bureau is conducting in one of the public-scliool buildings a 
school for vocational counselors, wherein teachers and others 
who are interested in this important work may prepare them- 
selves for the better performance of their important tasks. 
Third, the Vocation l^ureau has brought about a cooperation 
of effort whereby various organizations have undertaken to per- 
form needed services without duplication of effort. 

An important part of the question of vocational selection is 
the amount of interest and attention that parents must give. 
To this problem of arousing an interest in parents, the School 
and Home Association has agreed to devote especial attention. 
By means of discussions before the Parents' Associations, of 
which it is composed, this society will be able to do much to 
create a widespread and intelligent interest in the problem. 

It is necessary also that accurate information be gathered 
with reference to the specific instruction offered in day and 
evening schools, both public and private. The Women's Mu- 
nicipal League has undertaken to collect this information and to 
set it forth definitely and concisely in the form of printed 
charts. 

To the work of giving vocational advice to girls who have 
left school, the Girls' Trade Education League will give special 
attention. 

In the schools themselves many things have been done at the 
suggestion of the Committee on Vocational Direction, chief 
among which is the appointment in each high school and ele- 
mentary school of one or more vocational counselors. These 
counselors have been selected by the principals with reference 
to their interest in the work of vocational direction, their skill 
in determining the abilities and possibilities of the children, and 
their willingness to devote extra time to acquiring information 
and perfecting themselves for the successful performance of their 
duties. Meetings of these counselors have been held for the 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



241 



purpose of discussing the problems of vocational direction and 
considering how best to minimize its dangers and increase its 
beneficial results. Most of them are now taking a course of 
instruction arranged by the Vocation Bureau, wherein they may 
be even more efficiently prepared for the work of directing 
pupils wisely. As an illustration of the work of these vocational 
counselors the following will serve : 

Last June twice as many elementary-school graduates as could 
be admitted elected the High School of Commerce and the 
High School of Practical Arts. Hitherto when similar con- 
ditions have arisen it has been necessary to choose the half that 
could be admitted either by lot or on the basis of scholarship. 
This year the existence of the vocational counselors rendered 
possible a different and a better procedure. The principal of 
each elementary school was sent a list of the boys in his school 
who had applied for admission to the High School of Com- 
merce, with the statement that only half could be admitted. 
The request was made that the vocational counselor of the school 
select that half. The principal of the High School of Com- 
merce met the vocational counselors, explained the special work 
done in that school, and outlined the qualities that a boy must 
possess in order to succeed therein. The vocational counselors 
then approached the question of choosing the boys to be ad- 
mitted, having on the one hand some knowledge of the special 
qualities needed in that particular school, and, on the other hand, 
a knowledge of the tastes and aptitudes of the boy as shown by 
his work in the elementary school. The boys chosen by the 
vocational counselors were then admitted. A similar course 
was pursued with girls for the High School of Practical Arts, 
and it is hoped that this process of selection has brought into 
these schools a higher percentage of pupils fitted to do the work 
therein than could have been secured by either of the methods 
previously pursued. 



242 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Somewhat different and less difficult than the problem of 
selecting a school is the work done in specific vocational schools, 
as illustrated in the High School of Commerce and the Trade 
School for Girls. 

Since the High School of Commerce was organized in 1906 
systematic instruction has been given with reference to existing 
business opportunities and the possibilities of each. Carefully 
prepared courses of lectures, based on accurate investigations of 
conditions in Boston and elsewhere, have been presented each 
year. The whole atmosphere of the school has been permeated 
with the idea of choosing wisely some particular business. The 
purpose of the- school is not only to fit the boy for a commercial 
career, but to find that particular commercial career in which he 
gives promise of the greatest progress. In order to assist in the 
process of fitting each boy to his business, a system of summer 
apprenticeship has been established. Prior to the summer vacation 
in 1909, and again in 19 10, the School Committee appointed a 
man to have charge of the work of finding employment for the 
high-school boys during the summer in the business houses of 
the city. The business men have cooperated heartily in the plan. 
They agree to give the boys the best possible chance to obtain a 
knowledge of the business and demonstrate their own fitness or 
unfitness for it. In particular, they agree not to hire the boy 
after school opens in September, even though he has shown 
special aptitude for the work in hand. By this means the busi- 
ness men have a sympathetic understanding of the aims of the 
school, the school appreciates more thoroughly the demands made 
upon the boys who enter business, and the boys obtain some 
insight into the relation of their school tasks to their life work. 

In the Trade School for Girls provision is made for a voca- 
tional assistant for each hundred girls. The school teaches cer- 
tain trades, and the vocational assistant is charged with the duty 
of investigating conditions existing in these trades, in order to 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 243 

enable the school to adapt its course to the exact needs of busi- 
ness, and to provide accurate and up-to-date information available 
for use of parents and pupils. 

* It is the business of the vocational assistant to secure positions 
for graduates, and in this sense she conducts an employment 
bureau, but with the important difference that she knows both 
the conditions in the trade and the qualifications of the par- 
ticular girls, and therefore endeavors not merely to find a place 
for the girl, but a place where she will succeed. The work of the 
vocational assistant, however, but begins with finding a place for 
the girl. It is success that counts, and the vocational assistant 
is to keep track of her girls, know which ones succeed, and, more 
especially, which ones fail, and why they fail ; she is to find 
for those who fail other places better suited to their abilities, or 
perchance advise them to return to school until they reach a 
degree of proficiency that will enable them to retain a position 
once obtained. 

On the moral side, also, the vocational assistant will have 
great effect. Before the girl leaves school it is hoped that such 
a mutual relation of confidence and friendship will be established 
that any girl who finds herself at work in a shop or factory where 
conditions are improper will report promptly to the vocational 
assistant, with the result that the girl will be placed in another 
position, and that no more girls will be sent to the shop or 
factory complained of until conditions are improved. When, 
perchance, a girl is placed in a position in which she cannot 
advance, or from which she is discharged, the vocational assistant 
should be on hand to encourage and assist, to tide the girl over 
the immediate difficulty, and to find for her some other work 
wherein there is prospect of earning a living wage and of meet- 
ing a greater measure of success. 

In both of these schools it will be observed that the prob- 
lem is that of selecting a particular business or trade within a 



244 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

comparatively limited range from which the pupil, by entering 
the school, has elected to choose. Much broader and far more 
difficult is the task of selecting the particular school to which a 
boy or girl should go, or of deciding on the specific calling that' 
he should enter on leaving a school that has given him only a 
very general preparation. It is in this field that vocational direc- 
tion will be most necessary and should ultimately succeed in 
reaching its greatest usefulness. 

To secure information that is accurate is comparatively easy, 
but to give advice that is wise with reference to selecting a life 
calling is most difficult. He who gives advice must know not 
only the relative advantages of the different trades, businesses, 
and professions, but also the specific requirements for success 
in each. To determine what callings give greatest financial re- 
turns, and to advise all pupils to seek those callings, would be to 
ignore the element that will make advice valuable, namely, the 
careful consideration of the tastes, tendencies, and abilities of 
the pupils, in order that each may be advised to select a calling 
in which the requirements for success are such that he may 
have reasonable expectation of meeting them. The vocational 
adviser must know business, to be sure, but he has much greater 
need to know boys. 

It is evident that a vast amount of scientific investigation 
must be made before any form of vocational advice can have any 
substantial and reliable scientific foundation. Outside of such 
elements as courtesy, tact, perseverance, courage, honesty, and 
the like, the factors that are really essential in any single busi- 
ness are as yet undetermined. The extent to which success in 
each calling depends upon the strength or accuracy of muscular 
reaction, upon the pertinacity and rapidity of mental associations, 
or upon any one of a dozen other lines of mental and motor 
activity, still awaits solution in the laboratory, of the experimental 
psychologist. More difficult still is the determination of the 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 245 

exact qualifications of each particular boy ; impossible, in fact, 
under any system of investigation that now exists or is likely to 
exist under conditions that will be readily applicable to thousands 
of children annually. When to these difficulties is added that 
of determining now, with a boy in the adolescent period of rapid 
and turbulent change, what will be his dominant, permanent 
characteristics when he has reached manhood, it becomes clear 
that even under the most careful guidance the giving of voca- 
tional advice must still remain in the realm of the uncertain and 
problematical. 

To give advice as to selection of a life work must remain for 
the most part an appreciative art rather than an exact science. 
It will depend upon those attitudes of mind that are appreciative 
and interpretative, rather than upon those which are analytical 
and scientific. Both the parent and the expert vocational adviser 
are likely to be in error ; the parent because he is too near the 
life of the boy, knows him too intimately, loves him too well, 
and is too strongly prejudiced in his favor and too prone to 
exaggerate both his minor faults and his minor virtues, to en- 
able him to judge with all wisdom as to the present condition 
or future promise of his child ; the psychological expert, because 
he is too far from the child, too unacquainted with his attitudes 
of mind, his reactions under the stress and irritations of life 
conditions, too remote to receive the shy confidences of a fleet- 
ing moment when the child lifts but for a second the veil that 
covers many latent possibilities. Between the parent and the 
expert adviser, however, is the teacher, who possesses or should 
possess some of the characteristics of each. I do not mean that 
there is little use for expert vocational advice, but merely to em- 
phasize that its greatest work must be done by utilizing as its 
agents those who now furnish, and who will continue to furnish, 
ideals, incentives, and directions to a majority of all the pupils 
in school. 



246 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Plan of the Central High School 
Grand Rapids, Michigan 

Unquestionably the widening of educational opportunities has 
forced upon principals and teachers generally the necessity of 
guiding their pupils to make a wise selection among the schools 
and courses of study which offer such a variety of possibilities. 
In individual instances counsel has been given with full recog- 
nition of the value of vocational motive, but in few schools has 
any effort been made to reduce this counseling to a system or 
to develop it as an art. 

Principal Jesse B. Davis, of the Central High School, Grand 
Rapids, Michigan, has developed in his school a plan based on 
the conception that vocational vision can be created and de- 
veloped by education, and that this particular kind of education 
the schools should give. The plan was fully set forth in a paper ^ 
read by Mr. Davis in 191 1. In it he discussed the need for vo- 
cational education and vocational guidance, and made excellent 
suggestions relating to possible guidance below the high school, 
emphasizing, it is true, the need of giving information about 
vocational life, rather than the need of developing appreciation 
of it through actual co?itact zvith its elements. The complete 
plan for the high school follows. 

A STUDY OF CONDITIONS 

In talking with the pupils about to enter the high school from year to 
year, I have found that it is a rare thing for pupils to have any definite idea 
of a plan for their future. They have great difficulty in choosing a course 
of study in the high school. The choices made are often influenced by the 
merest whims, by parents' or teachers' hobbies, by companions' choices, or 
by hearsay evidence that certain subjects are hard or easy. After entering 
the high school many pupils have come to the office to obtain permission 
to drop a certain study, because they have found it to be something different 

^ The paper will be found in full in the proceedings of the 191 1 meeting of 
the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. The de- 
scriptive portions only are here given. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 247 

from what they thought it was when they decided to talce it. An elective 
system gives rise to much harmful changing about by students who have 
no aim in their study. I have also found that students will decide the ques- 
tion of going to college or into business with just about as much judgment 
as they use in electing courses upon entering the ninth grade. But few of 
them are serious-minded enough to consider carefully the kind of work that 
they should take up in college. 

In order to obtain a more definite idea of the actual situation in the high 
school itself, I made a special study of 531 cases. These boys were asked 
to answer a number of questions as honestly and as carefully as they pos- 
sibly could. I have every reason to believe that the results obtained are as 
accurate as is the judgment of the average high-school boy. Of the 531 
boys in all grades of the high school, 240 had decided upon some vocation. 
From the 291 who had not arrived at any decision in the matter, 194 had 
tried to do so, while 97 boys had made no effort at all ; 235 of these said 
that they would like to have advice on the subject, leaving 56 who were 
apparently indifferent to the question. A further study of the 240 who had 
made a decision gave still more interesting data. In asking them how they 
came to make this decision, and by whom they were influenced in making 
the choice, I found that 105 cases were practically settled by parents ; so 
far the teachers had influenced only 26, companions had led 33 to do as 
they were going to do, 59 had chosen a certain vocation because some rel- 
ative or friend in the occupation had made it attractive for them, and 23 
boys had arrived at their conclusion without the aid of any one. This 
proved that the parents were the dominating factors, that the teachers were 
not making full use of their opportunity, and that many pupils were making 
life decisions without any proper guidance or influence. I asked what knowl- 
edge they had of the vocation they had chosen, and found that 47 of them 
had worked during vacations or at other times in the occupation they had 
decided upon ; 34 knew something about the vocation because their parents 
and relatives were in it ; 36 had spent some time reading and studying about 
their choice; and 123 confessed that they had no real knowledge of the 
vocation that they had determined to enter. Of the 240 I found that 150 
were choosing their studies in accordance with a plan to prepare for their 
life work, and that 90 were still drifting along without any idea of how 
they might best realize their ambition. I asked what purpose they had in 
mind in choosing a particular vocation. One answered f or " service " ; 19 
were after "money"; 85 merely " preferred " or " liked " that one best; 
39 really thought they were better "fitted" for it than anything else; 19 
wished to enter the same work with their parents; and ']'] could think of 
no purpose in particular except to make a living. 



248 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

A study of choices that were made by the 240 boys gave evidence of a 
rather narrow vision of the world's work, only 30 different vocations being 
named. About one third of all the boys were going to be engineers of some 
kind, 22 were looking toward the law, 12 had decided to take up farming; 
of course there were a number in Grand Rapids who were interested in 
manufacturing, but the others were scattered among the most familiar 
occupations. Most teachers of mathematics would agree that of the 73 who 
had chosen engineering, a good number could be wisely guided into different 
lines by an investigation of their ability in that subject. 

Altogether the investigation gave much evidence of a need of better 
guidance, and this evidence, together with the knowledge that the pupils 
who have a definite aim actually do a much higher grade of work than those 
who are drifting along the path of least resistance, led us to determine on 
a scheme of guidance which we have now learned to call "vocational." 

From my investigation of the influences that determine the choice of the 
high-school boy, I realize the need of instructing the parents as well as 
the pupils. Nearly all of our grammar schools have organized parents' 
clubs. The progress of the movement to make the schoolhouse a social 
center is also opening the way for splendid opportunities to educate the 
parents in the art of wise guidance, and is bound to promote a more health- 
ful cooperation between parent and teacher. We have published a little 
pamphlet addressed to the parents of the eighth-grade pupils in regard to 
the advantages of a high-school education, and as a guide in choosing 
studies upon entering the high school. Other pamphlets are in process of 
preparation. These will be on vocational topics, and largely for the benefit 
of those who cannot go on immediately with their education, but who must 
find some kind of employment. 

GUIDANCE IN THE HIGH .SCHOOL 

Vocational guidance is, or should be, a process of drawing out from a 
pupil a knowledge of himself, of opening his eyes to see the wide field of 
opportunity that is before him, and of developing in him the elements of 
character that make for a successful life. It is then a problem of self-de- 
velopment and not a matter of mere information or of the giving of advice. 
Following out this theory, we have selected in the high school the depart- 
ment of English for the purpose of experiment. In this subject we reach 
every pupil, and at the same time offer the students subjects for composition 
that are of real interest to them and about which they have some ideas of 
their own. The aim of the arrangement of themes will be seen from the 
following scheme : 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



249 



Ninth grade ^ fi7-st semester. Autobiographical themes. 

I. The family. 2. My health. 3. The record of a day. 4. My habits. 

5. My likes and dislikes. 6. The most important event in my life. 7. My 
ambition. 8. My church. 9. A self-estimate. 

Ninth grade., second semester. Biogi^aphy . 

I. (Franklin, etc.) at my age. 2. How (Edison) succeeded. 3. My op- 
portunities compared with those of (Lincoln). 4. Have I some qualities 
found in (great men) ? 
Tenth grade., first semester. The ■world'' s work. 

I. The kind of employment that I can get now. 2. Child labor. 3. Wages 
of those leaving school at the eighth grade compared with high-school 
graduates. 4. Different vocations selected and assigned by the teacher. 
Tenth grade, second semester. My vocation. 

I. Why I have chosen my vocation. 2. Interview with a successful 
man or woman in the vocation. 3. Plan for entering this vocation. 
Eleventh grade, first semester. Eleinents of success {character-). 

I. What are business habits? 2. Character I's. reputation. 3. The ef- 
fect of overcoming bad habits. 4. The manly man. 5. Which has the 
greater effect on your character, your environment or your associates ? 

6. What kind of an employee does the business man want .'' 7. What ele- 
ments of character are demanded by my vocation ? 

Eleventh grade, second semester. Elemefits of success {duty and obligation'). 

I. Keeping faith with self and with others. 2. One's duty toward parents, 
friends, and employer. 3. Discuss " Fidelity is seven tenths of business suc- 
cess." 4. Am I the architect of my own character ? 5. What is the reward of 
duty done ? 6. Does my vocation impose upon me any duty or obligation ? 
Twelfth grade, first semester. The individual and society. 

I. Why should I be interested in the following: [a) the pubHc schools ; 
{b) social settlements; (<:) charity organizations; [d) religious societies.? 
2. My vocation in the community. 3. My avocation. 4. What could I do 
if my vocation were taken from me ? 
Twelfth grade, second semester. Citizenship. 

I. What is public spirit.? 2. What is my duty to the state? 3. Why 
obey the law? 4. Why be honest in business? 5. Should business interfere 
with public welfare ? 6. The right use of money. 

These suggested themes are merely types to show the aim of the work. 
Teachers who are in sympathy with the plan will readily work out their 
own ideas. The pupils themselves will also suggest many profitable studies. 
The one thought of preparation for life and life's work through the chosen 
vocation should be the dominating purpose underlying the whole scheme. 



250 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

VOCATIONAL RECORD CHARTS 

To make use of the valuable material gained through the written themes 
and personal conferences with the teachers of English, a plan for recording 
the information relating to vocational guidance has been devised. Naturally 
the first record desired is from the grammar school, to be used as a guide 
if the pupil enters the high school, or to be kept by the grammar-school 
principal who wishes to follow up those who have entered industrial life. 
The following card is suggested for this purpose. 

Vocational Record for tJie Eightli Grade 

Name Age Date of graduation 

Parent's name Address 

Parent's occupation 

Voca/io/ia/ Iiiftitoice of 
Family Health 



Habits Ability 

Experience Peculiarities. 

Character Leadership 



Stability Vocation- 
Teacher's opinion 



Teacher _^ 



When a pupil has entered the high school a regular scholarship record 
is kept by means of a large card nine and one-half inches by twelve inches. 
On the back of this card is recorded the progress made by the pupil in de- 
velopment of character and vocational tendencies. The information received 
from the eighth grade is affixed or transferred to this card. At the end of 
each semester the teacher of English and the session-room teacher add to 
the record such data as, in their judgment, may be of future value in giving 
advice or in making recommendations. The reverse side of the record card 
is prepared as shown below. 



Name_ 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

Shident Vocational Record 
Grammar school 



Record from eighth grade_ 



^51 





English 


teacher, 


ninth grade. 


first 


semester 


Session- 


room teacher_ 
















English 


teacher, 


ninth 


grade. 


secor 


id semester 





These forms and spaces are continued for the four years of the high- 
school course. All records are kept in the vault of the school and are not 
shown to the pupils. 

Reverse of Regular Scholarship Record Card 



Name_ 



VOCATIONAL RECORD 

Parent's vocation_ 



Semester 


Plans for future 


Ability 


Personal history 


Character 


Teacher 



















































On the card the spaces of these columns are of equal width. The card is 
nine and one-half inches by eleven and three-quarters inches. 

Topics of record under the above headings are indicated below. All 
information of value in vocational guidance should be recorded. 



32 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Phiiis for futuic. \'ocation, college, employment, etc. 
Abilitv. Special aptitude, initiative, skill, capacity, efficiency, etc. 
Pcrsflual Jiistory. Home, health, travel, employment, etc. 
Cliaracicr. Honesty, perseverance, promptness, stability, habits, etc. 

REMARKS 



SCHOOL COUNSELORS 

The Grand Rapids High School is organized with six session-room 
teachers, who are in fact assistant principals. They are in fvill charge of 
about two hundred fifty pupils each, and all matters of scholarship and petty 
discipline are within their jurisdiction. These teachers form a sort of cab- 
inet for the principal in directing the work of the pupils, and are therefore 
well situated to act as vocational counselors. The problems of choice of 
studies, of keeping up the daily work, and of discipline, offer them oppor- 
tunities for vocational guidance that many times bring immediate results. 
These teachers have not more than three recitations a day, so that they 
have the time and opportunity to talk with the pupils. At the beginning of 
each semester these teachers examine the records on the cards just described. 
They add the experience of that semester, and so the data are gathered for 
use as they may be needed in giving advice or in making recommendations 
for college or for business positions. This system places at the disposal of 
the principal, who is the chief counselor, the combined judgment of a 
dozen or more teachers, each of whom has had a special opportunity to 
study the pupil. At this point in the work of guidance the school has done 
about all it can without the cooperation of those who are to receive the 
product of their efforts. 

THE FUN'CTION OF THE VOCATION BUREAU 

The whole problem of vocational guidance is primarily educational. It 
belongs to the school as a legitimate part of its work just as positively as 
the teaching of any subject in the curriculum. As was said earlier in this 
paper, we have worked out a fairly satisfactory adjustment of the relations 
between the public school and the higher institutions of learning, through 
many years of conference and cooperation. Now we must pursue the 
same methods of conference and cooperation with the men who are directing 
the business institutions into which our pupils are to enter, as we have in 
the past w'ith the university and college men. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



253 



If all this is to be done successfully, we must have the aid and counsel 
of successful, educated business men and women. This is the chief function 
of the so-called Vocation Bureau. In each city, through the cooperation of 
the Board of Education and the Board of Trade or Commerce, a commis- 
sion of interested citizens should be appointed, to counsel with the school 
authorities in the solution of all these problems. The right kind of citizens 
on such a bureau will lend power to the movement and will make it possible 
to carry out the plans that may be formulated. 

- However, I wish to emphasize the principal thesis of this argument, that 
the movement for vocational guidance is strictly an educational function. 
For this reason it belongs to the schools as a formal part of their work, 
and should be directed by the authority of the local Board of Education. 
With this central authority the work can be conducted with greater har- 
mony, and more effectual results can be obtained. The vocational counselor 
should logically be a member of the school system, in touch with all its 
departments and as near to the lives of the pupils as possible. The principal 
of the school from which the pupils go out into the world is their natural 
counselor. I do not approve of the idea of making the work of vocational 
counseling a " new profession." It is merely the broadening out of the 
opportunity and duty of the school principal. It seems to be a very logical 
way of meeting the demand that is being made on the public schools for 
a better preparation of our boys and girls. 

The Grand Rapids Public Library, cooperating with the school 
authorities, pubhshed in its B^illetin of October, 1 9 1 1 , the fol- 
lowing list of books, together with the outline of the plan by 
Principal Davis. 

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

Outliiie of the course of study ifi the Ceittral High School, zvith a selected list of 
books in the library for teachers and picpils 

Introductory Note 

The following list of books on vocational guidance is published in order 
that _the work of the library in meeting requests for books on this subject 
may be facilitated. It is a selected list only, and there has been omitted 
from it the whole of the immense amount of material that is to be found 
in the reference department, chiefly articles in magazines, all of which are 
readily available through Poole's Index and other indexes. There are included 
in the following list books for the teacher as well as for the pupil. 



2 54 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

In order that those who use the list may have a better understanding of 
the purpose of vocational guidance as carried on in the Central High School 
of Grand Rapids, the principal of the school, Professor Jesse B. Davis, has 
kindly prepared the following brief statement of the aims of this work and 
the outline" of the course of study. The books are arranged with reference to 
this outline. 

Outline of Work in Vocational Guidance in the Central 
High School 

Bv Jesse B. Da7'is, Principal 

Vocational guidance aims to direct the thought and growth of the pupil 
throughout the high-school course along the line of preparation for life's 
work. The plan is intended to give the pupil an opportunity to study the 
elements of character that give success in life, and, by a careful self-analysis, 
to compare his own abilities and opportunities with those of successful men 
and women of the past. By broadening his vision of the world's work, and 
applying his own aptitudes and tastes to the field of endeavor that he may 
best be able to serve, it is attempted to stir the student's ambition and to 
give a purpose to all his future efforts. Having chosen even a tentative 
goal, his progress has direction. In the later study of moral and social ethics 
he has a viewpoint that makes the result both practical and effective. 

In order to reach all the pupils in the high school this work is carried 
on through the department of English, which subject all pupils must take. 
Brief themes and discussions form the basis of the work. Pupils are directed 
in their reading along vocational and ethical lines, and are advised by teachers 
who have made a special study of vocational guidance. The following out- 
line is but suggestive of the type of themes and discussions to be used. 
Each teacher is given opportunity to use her own individuality in working 
out the details of the scheme. 

Outline 
Fiist ] 'ear 

First semester. Elements of success in life. 

1 . Everyday problems. 

{a) The school ; {b) the home ; [c) the athletic field : ((I) the social 
group. 

2. Elements of character. 

{a) Purpose of life ; (b) habit; {c) happiness: {li) self-control; {e) 
work ; (/') health. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 255 

Second semeste7\ Biography of successful men aiid women. 

1. Character sketches. 

2. Comparison of opportunities of ■ with self. 

3. Comparison of qualities of with self. 

Second Year 
First semester. The world's work. 

1 . Vocations — professions, occupations. 

2. Vocations for men. 

3. Vocations for women. 

Second semester. Choosing a vocation. 

1 . Making use of my ability. 

2. Making use of my opportunity. 

3. Why I should like to be . 

4. The law of service. 

Third Year 
First semester. Preparation for life's work. 

1. Should I go to college.'' 

2. How shall I prepare for my vocation.'' 

3. Vocational schools. 

4. How shall I get into business ? 
Second semester. Business etJiics. 

1. Business courtesy. 

2. Morals in modern business methods. 

3. Employer and employee. 

4. Integrity an asset in business. 

Fourth Year 
Fi7-st semester. Social ethics : the individual and society {f7'07)i the point 
of view of my vocation). 

1. Why should I be interested in (a) public schools? {b) the slums? ic) 

social settlements? {d) public charities? ie) the church? (_/") social 
service ? 

2. The social relation of the business man. 

Second setnester. Social ethics : the individual and the state [fi'om the 
point of view of my vocation). 

1. The rights of the individual. 

2. Protection to the individual from the state. 

3. The obligations of citizenship. 

4. The rights of property. 

5. The responsibility of power. 



256 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

First Year — First Semester 

Elements of Success in Life 

Adams, W. H. D. The Secret of Success. 1879. 

Babcock, M. D. The Success of Defeat. 1905. 

Bennett, Arnold. How to live on Twenty-four Hours a Day. c. 1910. 

Brent, C. H. Leadership. 1908. 

Call, Annie P. Everyday Living, c. 1906. 

Fowler, N. C. Starting in Life. What each caUing offers ambitious boys 

and young men. 1907. 
GiLMAN, N. P., and Jackson, E. P. Laws of Daily Conduct, and Charac- 
ter Building, c. 1891. 
Grant, Robert. Search- Light Letters. 1899. 
Griggs, E. H. The Use of the Margin. 1907. 
GuLiCK, L. H. The Efficient Life. 1907. 
GuLiCK, L. H. Mind and Work. 1908. 
Hardwicke, Henry. The Art of getting Rich. c. 1897. 
HiGGiNSON, T. W. Things worth while. 1908. 
HiLTV, Carl. Happiness, Essays on the Meaning of Life. 1903. 
Hubbard, Elbert. A Message to Garcia, c. 1900. 
Jordan, W. G. The Kingship of Self-control. Individual problems and 

possibilities. 1901. 
Kellor, Frances A. Out of Work. A study of employment agencies, 

their treatment of the unemployed and their influence upon homes and 

business. 1904. 
Knowlson, T. S. The Art of Success. 1902. 
Knox, G. H. Ready Money. 1908. 

Lecky, W. E. H. Map of Life. Conduct and character. 1900. 
Lorimer, G. H. Letters from a Self-made Merchant to his Son.^ 1902. 
MacCunn, John. The Making of Character. Some educational aspects of 

ethics. 1900. 
Marden, O. S. Architects of Fate ; or, Steps to Success and Power. 1896. 
Marden, O. S. The Making of a Man. 1905. 

Marden, O. S. The Optimistic Life ; or, In the Cheering-up Business. 1907. 
Marden, O. S. Pushing to the Front ; or. Success under Difficulties. 1896. 
Marden, O. S. The Secret of Achievement, c. 1898. 
Marden, O. S. Success. A book of ideals, helps, and examples for all 

desiring to make the most of life. 1897. 

^ Letters of advice concerning a business career ; full of humor and sound 
sense. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 257 

Marden, O. S. Winning Out. A book for young people on character 
building by habit forming, c. 1900. 

Marden, O. S. The Young Man entering Business, c. 1903. 

Marden, O. S. (ed.) Talks with Great Workers, c. igoi. 

Mathews, William. Conquering Success; or, Life in Earnest. 1903. 

Mathews, William. Getting on in the World ; or. Hints on Success in 
Life. c. 1872. 

Sangster, Margaret E. Life on High Levels. Familiar talks on conduct 
of life. 1897. 

Smiles, Samuel. Self-help, with Illustrations of Character. 1859. 

Van Dyke, Henry. The School of Life. 1905. 

Wagner, Charles. On Life's Threshold. Talks to young people on char- 
acter and conduct. 1905. 

Whipple, E. P. Success and its Conditions, c. 1871. 

First Year — Second Semester 
Biography of Successful Men and Women 

Addams, Jane. Twenty Years at Hull House. 1910. 

Balfour, Graham. Life of Robert Louis Stevenson. 1901. 2 vols. 

Ballou, M. M. Genius in Sunshine and Shadow. 1886. 

Blackett, Howard. Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi. 1888. 

Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Givers and their Gifts, c. 1896. 

Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Leaders among Men. c. 1894. 

Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Leaders among Women, c. 1895. 

Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Types of Womanhood, c. 1892. 

Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Voyagers and Explorers, c. 1893. 

Bolton, Sarah K. Lives of Girls who became Famous. 1886. 

Bolton, Sarah K. Successful Women. 1888. 

Brooks, E. S. Great Men's Sons. Who they were, what they did, and 
how they turned out. 1895. 

Clemens, W. M. Theodore Roosevelt, the American, c. 1899. 

Craik, G. L. The Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties. New edition, 
revised and enlarged. 1865. 

Curtis, W. E. The True Abraham Lincoln. 1903. 

Davis, R. H. Real Soldiers of Fortune. 1906. 

Drake, S. A. (ed.). Our Great Benefactors. 1884. 

Ferris, G. T. (ed.). Great Leaders. Historic portraits from the great his- 
torians. 1889. 

Ford, P. L. The Many-Sided Franklin. 1899. 

Ford, P. L. The True George Washington. 1896. 



258 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Franklin, Benjamin. Autobiography, c. i8g6. 
Gilchrist, Beth B. Life of Mary Lyon. igio. 

Gordon, Anna A. The Beautiful Life of Frances E. Willard. c. 1898. 
Hale, E. E. (ed.). Lights of Two Centuries.^ 1S87. 

Harrison, J. A. George Washington, Patriot, Soldier, Statesman. 1906. 
Houghton, W. R. Kings of Fortune ; or, The Triumph and Achieve- 
ments of Noble, Self-made Men. 1888. 
Keller, Helen. Story of my Life. 1903. 
Lawrence, William. Phillips Brooks. 1903. 

McCabe, J. D., Jr. Great Fortunes and how they were made. 1870. 
Marden, O. S. How they succeeded. Life stories of successful men told 

by themselves. 1901. 
Morgan, James. Theodore Roosevelt, the Boy and the Man. 1907. 
Morris, Charles. Heroes of Progress in America. 1906. 
Neil, Samuel. Epoch Men, and the Results of their Lives. 1871. 
Palmer, G. H. The Life of Alice Freeman Palmer. 1908. 
Parton, James. Captains of Industry; or. Men of Business who did 

Something besides making Money. 1885. 2 vols. 
Parton, James (ed.). Some Noted Princes, Authors, and Statesmen of our 

Time. 1885. 
Pollard, Eliza F. Florence Nightingale. 
Raymond, R. W. Peter Cooper, c. 1901. 
Riis, Jacob A. The Making of an American. 1901. 
Riis, Jacob A. Theodore Roosevelt the Citizen. 1904. 
Rothschild, Alonzo. Lincoln, Master of Men. A study in character. 

Anniversary edition. 1908. 
Schuchhardt, Carl. Life of Dr. Schliemann. 

Smiles, Samuel. Industrial Biography. Ironworkers and toolmakers. 1863. 
Stoddard, W. O. Men of Business. 1893. 
Stowe, Harriet B. The Lives and Deeds of Self-made Men. New edition, 

revised. 1889. 
Tarbell, Ida M. Life of Abraham Lincoln. 1900. 2 vols. 
Tiffany, Frances. Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix. 1891. 
Washington, B. T. Frederick Douglass. 1907. 
Washington, B. T. Up from Slavery. 1901. 
West, Jennie J. Cornwallis-. The Reminiscences of Lady Randolph 

Churchill. 1908. 
Whipple, E. P. Recollections of Eminent Men. 1886. 

1 This volume contains accounts of noted artists and sculptors, prose writers, 
composers, poets, and inventors. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 259 

Second Year — First Semester 

The World'' s Work — General 

Allerton, S. W. Practical Farming. 1907. 

Calkins, E. E., and Holden, Ralph. Modern Advertising. 1909. 

Carnegie, Andrew. The Empire of Business. 1902. 

Cole, G. S. Art of Salesmanship. A manual for retail dry-goods salesmen. 

1896. 
Collins, J. H. Human Nature in selling Goods, c. 1909. 
Corbion, W. a. The Principles of Salesmanship, Deportment, and System. 

A textbook for department-store service. 1907. 
Dawson, M. M. The Business of Life Insurance. 1906. 
De Weese, T. a. The Principles of Practical Publicity. Second edition. 

1908. 
DiCKSEE, L. R., and Plain, H. E. Office Organization and Management. 

1906. 
Dryden, J. F. Addresses and Papers on Life Insurance.^ 1909. 
FiSKE, G. B. (comp.). Prize Gardening. 1901. 
Fitch, Sir J. W. Lectures on Teaching. New edition. 1887. 
Guernsey, A. H. The World's Opportunities, and how to use them. 1887. 
Hall, Bolton. A Little Land and a Living. 1908. 
Haskins, C. W. Business Education and Accountancy. 1904. 
Hasluck, p. N. (ed.). The Book of Photography. 1905. 
Huber, p. G., Jr. The Stage as a Career. A sketch of the actor's life, its 

requirements, hardships, and rewards. 1900. 
Kleiser, Grenville. Plow to speak in Public. Seventh edidon. 1910. 
Mathews, J. McD. How to succeed in the Practice of Medicine. 1905. 
Mitchell, S. W. Doctor and Patient. 1904. 
Morris, William. The Decorative Arts. Their relation to modern life 

and progress. 
MUNSON, J. E. The Art of Phonography. New revised edition. 1904. 
Palmer, G. H., and Alice F. The Teacher. 1908. 
Some Arts and Crafts. 1903.^ 
Stoddard, J. S. What shall I do? Fifty profitable occupations for boys 

and girls who are undecided as to how to earn their own living.*^ c. 1 899. 

1 See Chapter VII, " Life Insurance as a Career." 

2 Contents : Furniture and Decoration, by May Crommelin and Mrs. R. B. 
Shaw ; Wood Carving, by Maria E. Reeks ; The Art of Enameling, by Elinor 
Halle ; Spinning and Weaving, by A. M. C. Bagley ; Bookbinding, by Ethel 
M. M. M'Kenna ; Photographic Portraiture as a Profession, by Alice Hughes. 

3 An excellent little book with which to begin a study of this problem. 



26o EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Strong, C.J. The Art of Show-Card Writing. 1907. 
Thrasher, M. B. Tuskegee, its Story and its Work. 1900. 
Washburn, R. M. Principles and Practice of Ice-Cream Making. 1910. 
Wright, Grant. The Art of Caricature. 1904. 

The World's Work — For Men 

Arnold, H. L. The Factory Manager and Accountant. 1910. 

Aylmer-Small, Sidnev. How to become a Successful Motorman. 1908. 

Bailey, L. H. The Training of Farmers. 1909. 

Bates, W. W. American Navigation. 1902. 

Bauer, A. G. The Art of Window Dressing for Grocers, c. 1902. 

Beveridge, a. J. The Young Man and the World. 1906. 

Britigan, W. H., and Wharton, G. W. (ed.). Practical Real-Estate 
Methods. Third edition. 1910. 

Byxbee, O. F. Establishing a Newspaper. 1901. 

Clare, George. A B C of Foreign Exchanges. Fourth edition. 1905. 

Cochrane, C. H. Modern Industrial Progress. 1904. 

Cole, W. M. Accounts, their Construction and Interpretation for Busi- 
ness Men and Students of Affairs. 1908. 

Collins, J. H. The Art of Handling Men. c. 191 o. 

Dewsnup, E. R. (ed.). Railway Organization and Working. 1906. 

Duncan, R. K. The Chemistry of Commerce. 1907. 

FiSKE, A. K. The Modern Bank. 1904. 

Foltz, E. B. K. The Federal Civil Service as a Career. 1909. 

Fowler, N. C. Building Business. 1893. 

Gu'EN, J. L. Making a Newspaper. 1907. 

Gladden, Washington. The Church and Modern Life. 1908. 

Grayson, David. Adventures in Contentment. 1907. 

Green, S. B. Principles of American Forestry. 1903. 

Harcourt, L. F. Vernon-. Civil Engineering as applied in Construction. 
Second edition, revised by Henry Fidler. 1910. 

Hooper, Frederick, and Graham, James. Home Trade; or, Modern 
Commercial Practice. Second edition. 1905. 

HoYT, A. S. The Work of Preaching. 1909. 

Johnson, Charles. Guide to Successful Auctioneering, c. 1903. 

McPherson, L. G. Working of the Railroads. 1907. 

Moody, W. D. Men who sell Things. Eighth edition. 1910. 

Nelson, E. H. The Traveling Salesman. Fourth edition, c. 1891. 

Olin, C. H. Journalism. Explains the workings of a modern newspaper 
office, and gives full directions for those who desire to enter the field of 
journahsm. 1906. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 26 1 

Parsons, C. C. Business Administration. 1909. 
Phillips, W. B. How Department Stores are carried on. 1901. 
Pratt, S. S. The Work of Wall Street. 1910. 
Rainsford, W. S. a Preacher's Story of his Work. 1904. 
Reid, Whitelaw, and others. Careers for the Coming Men. 1907. 
Rocheleau, W. F. The Geography of Commerce and Industry, c. 1905. 
Scott, W. D. The Theory of Advertising. 1904. 
Scott, W. D. Money and Banking. 1903. 
Shuman, E. L. Practical Journalism. 1903. 
Smith, J. R. The Organization of Ocean Commerce. 1905. 
Starbuck, R. M. Standard Practical Plumbing. 1910. 
Statham, H. H. Architecture for General Readers. 1896. 
Veblen, T. B. The Theory of Business Enterprise. 1904. 
Waterhouse, p. L. The Story of the Art of Building. 1901. 
Williams, Archibald. How it is done ; or. Victories of the Engineer. 
c. 1908. 

The World'' s Work — For Women 

Alden, Cynthia W. Women's Ways of earning Money. 1904. 

Bennett, Arnold. JournaHsm for Women. 1898. 

BosTWiCK, A. E. The American Public Library. 19 10. 

Campbell, Helen S. Household Economics. 1897. 

Campbell, Helen S. Women Wage Earners. 1893. 

Candee, Helen C. How Women may earn a Living.^ 1900. 

Church, Ella R. Money Making for Ladies. 1882. 

Croly, Jane Cunningham. {Jenny Jime.) Thrown on her own Re- 
sources ; or. What Girls can do. c. 1891. 

Dana, J. C. A Library Primer. Fifth and revised edition. 19 10. 

Drysdale, William. Helps for Ambitious Girls, c. 1900. 

Hersey, Heloise E. To Girls. 1902. 

Hodson, Jane. How to become a Trained Nurse. 1898. 

Kilbourn, Katherine R. Money-Making Occupations for Women. Sec- 
ond edition. 1901. 

Laughlin, Clara E. (ed.). The Complete Dressmaker. 1907. 

Lyttleton, Mrs. Arthur. Women and their Work. 1901. 

MacLean, Annie M. Wage-Earning Women. 1910. 

Mallon, Isabel A. S. {Ruth Ashmorc.') The Business Girl in Every 
Phase of her Life. 1898. 

1 A discussion of twenty lines of activity which are open to women, setting 
forth the necessary natural qualifications, the desirable preliminary training, 
and the remuneration which may be expected in each. 



262 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Needlework.^ 1903- 

Richardson, Dorothy. The Long Day. The story of a New York work- 
ing girl. 1905. 

Salmon, Lucy M. Domestic Service. 1897. 

Thoburn, J. M. The Deaconess and her Vocation. 1893. 

Van Vorst, Bessie and Marie. The Woman who toils. 1903. 

White, Sallie J. Business Openings for Girls, c. 1891. 

Women's Educational and Industrial Union, Boston. Department 
of Research. Vocations for the Trained Woman, c. 19 10. 

Second Year — Second Semester 

Choosing a Vocatiofi 

Bolen, G. L. Getting a Living. 1903. 

Drysdale, William. Helps for Ambitious Boys. c. 1S99. 

Eggleston, G. C. How to make a Living. Suggestions upon the art of 

making, saving, and using money. 1875. 
FiSKE, L. F. Choosing a Life Work. c. 1 899. 
High School Teachers' Association of New York City. Students'' 

Aid Committee. Choosing a Career. A circular of information for boys. 

c. 1909. 
High School Teachers' Association of New York City. Students' 

Aid Committee. Choosing a Career. A circular of information for girls. 

c. 1909. 
Manson, G. J. Ready for Business; or, choosing an Occupation. 1889. 
Harden, O. S. Choosing a Career, c. 1905. 
Marslund, Frank. Occupations in Life. 1905. 
Parsons, Frank. Choosing a Vocation. 1909. 
Rollins, F. W. What can a Young Man do? 1909. 
Shaw, Albert. The Outlook for the Average Man. 1907. 
Sizer, Nelson. What to do and why. Trades and professions and the 

talents and temperaments required for each. 1872. 
Strong, Josiah. The Times and Young Men. c. 1901. 
Wing ATE, C. F. What shall our Boys do for a Living? 1908. 
Wyckoff, W. a. The Workers. An experiment in reality.^ 1 897-1 898. 

2 vols. 

^ Contents : Embroidery, by Ruth M. Day ; Dressmaking, by J. E. Davis ; 
Millinery, by Mrs. Turnbull ; Knitting and Crocheting, by Mrs. Turnbull and 
Miss Turnbull. 

- Contents : i. The East ; 2. The West. Story of a college man who tried 
to make a living at odd jobs. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 263 

Third Year — First Semester 
Prepa?'atio}i for Life's Woi'k 
Barbe, Waitmax. Going to College, c. 1899. 
BuRNHAM, W. P. Three Roads to a Commission in the United States 

Army. 1893. 
CONWELL, R. H. The New Day ; or, Fresh Opportunities. 
CoRBiN, John. Which College for the Boy? 1908. 
Craavford, Mary C. The College Girl of America, and the Institutions 

which make her what she is. 1905. 
Ewart, J. A., and others. A Civil Service Manual. 1908. 3 vols. 
Franklin, W. S., and Esty, William. The Elements of Electrical En- 
gineering. Sixth edition. 1910. 2 vols. 
Hall, S. R. How to get a Position and how to keep it.^ 1908. 
Hancock, H. I. Life at West Point. 1902. 
Hyde, W. D. The College Man and the College Woman. 1906. 
Leupp, F. E. How to prepare for a Civil Service Examination, c. 1898. 
Low, W. H. A Painter's Progress. ^ 1910. 
Miller, Fred. The Training of a Craftsman. 1898. 
NORRIS, H. H. An Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering. 

Second edition, revised. 1909. 
Plympton, G. W. How to become an Engineer; or, the Theoretical 

and Practical Training necessary in fitting for the Duties of the Civil 

Engineer. 1908. 
Ralph, Julian. Making of a Journalist. 1903. 
Reeves, I. L. A Manual for Aspirants for Commissions in the United 

States Military Service. 1910. 
Schriever, J. B. (ed.). Complete Self-instructing Library of Practical 

Photography. Popular edition. 1909. 10 vols. 
Sloane, T. O'C. How to become a Successful Electrician ; containing the 

studies to be followed, methods of work, field of operation, professional 

ethics, and wise counsel. Fifteenth edition, revised and enlarged. 1906. 
Stevens, C. McC. Complete Civil Service Manual. Revised edition by 

J. M. Vories. c. 1908. 
Thwing, C. F. College Training and the Business Man.^ 1904. 

1 Gives information about advertising for a position and how to write let- 
ters of application. 

2 Contents : The awakening of vocation ; the education of the artist ; the 
problem of self-support ; experiences in the Old World ; thirty years at home 
and abroad ; our present and our future. 

^ Contents : In general administration ; in banking ; in transportation ; in 
insurance ; in human relations. 



264 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Third Year — Second Semester 
Business Ethics 

Brooks, J. G. The Conflict between Private Monopoly and Good Citizen- 
ship. 1909. 

Freedley, E. T. Common Sense in Business. 1879. 

Hadley, a. T. Standards of Public Morality. ^ 1907. 

Holt, Hamilton. Commercialism and Journalism. 1909. 

Ross, E. A. Sin and Society. An analysis of latter-day iniquity. 1907. 

Wood, Henry. Natural Law in the Business World. 18S7. 

Yale University. Sheffield Scietitijic School. Morals in Modern Busi- 
ness. 1909. . 

Fourth Year — First Semester 

Social Efhics — The I/tdividual and Society 

Addams, Jane. Democracy and Social Ethics. 1902. 

Addams, Jane. The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. 1909. 

Dewey, John. School and Society. 1900. 

Henderson, C. R. Social Settlements, c. 1899. 

Huxley, T. H. Evolution and Ethics.^ 1903- 

Jones, S. M. Letters of Labor and Love.^ c. 1905. 

Lee, G. S. The Voice of the Machines. An introduction to the twentieth 

century, c. 1906. 
Potter, H. C. The Citizen in his Relation to the Industrial Situation. 

1902. 
Rlis, J. A. The Batde with the Slum. 1902. 
Roosevelt, Theodore. A Square Deal. c. 1906. 
Shaler, N. S. The Neighbor. The natural history of human contacts. 

1904. 
Winship, a. E. The Shop. c. 1889. 
Woods, R. A. (ed.). City Wilderness. A settlement study by residents and 

associates of the South End House. 1899. 

1 Contents : The formation of public opinion ; the ethics of trade ; the 
ethics of corporate management ; the workings of our political machinery ; 
the political duties of the citizen. 

- Contents : Evolution and ethics ; science and morals ; capital, the mother 
of labor ; social diseases and worse remedies ; the struggle for existence in 
human society ; letters to the Times on the " Darkest England " scheme. 

3 Letters of Samuel M. Jones, late Mayor of Toledo, Ohio, to the men 
who worked in his machine shops. 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 265 

Fourth Year — Second Semester 

Social Ethics — The Individual and the State 

Allen, W. H. Efficient Democracy. 1907. 
Bailey, L. H. The State and the Farmer. 1908. 
Brewer, D. J. American Citizenship. 1902. 
Bryce, James. The Hindrances to Good Citizenship. 1910. 
Cleveland, Grover. Good Citizenship. 1908. 
Howe, F. C. The City, the Hope of Democracy. 1905. 
FIuGHES, E. H. The Teaching of Citizenship, c. 1909. 
Jenks, J. W. Citizenship and the Schools. 1906. 
Jordan, D. S. The Nation's Need of Men. 1910. 
MORISON, G. S. The New Epoch. 1903. 

Shaler, N. S. The Citizen. A study of the individual and the govern- 
ment. 1904. 
Shaw, Albert. The Business Career in its Public Relations, c. 1904. 
Strong, Josiah. Twentieth Century City. c. 1898. 
Strong, Josiah. The Challenge of the City. c. 1907. 
Taft, W. H. Four Aspects of Civic Duty. 1907. 

New York City 

The development of vocational guidance in New York City 
has been almost entirely within the schools. The High School 
Teachers' Association, through its Students' Aid Committee, 
first offered help to graduates in securing positions, and later 
extended the work to directing pupils in choosing a vocation 
earlier in the course. Each day and evening high school in 
1908 had a teacher serving voluntarily in the capacity of voca- 
tional counselor. In order to reach more children than could 
be reached by personal conferences, the committee published leaf- 
lets on such subjects as " Choosing a Career," " Openings for 
Boys in Machine Shops," "Vocational Adjustment of Children 
to the Public Schools." These leaflets were practical and defi- 
nite. They presented facts in such a way that the attention 
of children and parents was called to the value of making a 
choice of vocation and of some definite preparation therefor. 



266 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

For instance, comparisons of the average earning capacity in 
several lines of work were made, and the differences represented 
by the cash sum which would be required to buy an equivalent 
annuity. The committee is making several systematic investiga- 
tions which will furnish a more scientific basis for its future work. 

Cincinnati, Ohio 

Cincinnati is working out a system of vocational guidance in 
which cooperation with the employers, physical and psycho- 
logical examinations, and a carefully kept record are important 
features. 

Reflection will show that a well-considered system of voca- 
tional guidance is especially necessary wherever the schools offer 
varied vocational courses. To leave tlie children without counsel 
in making a choice from among the many educational oppor- 
tunities would be to invite defeat for the plan of diversified 
schools. The misfits might be quite as numerous and the ul- 
timate educational results be even more disastrous than where 
all children are compelled to follow the one traditional, cultural, 
course of study. It is also clear that, under such circumstances, 
vocational guidance will fall under three rather distinct classifi- 
cations : the giving of advice to pupils as to choice of schools 
and courses within the school system ; the placement of pupils 
when they are ready to assume, or must perforce enter upon, the 
vocational responsibilities of life ; and the giving of such sub- 
sequent assistance as the young worker may need in adjusting 
himself to his new and unfamiliar surroundings. 



CHAP'TER XVII 

STATE LEGISLATION 

Theoretically, at least, JDublic opinion and interest are expressed 
in legislation. It is therefore pertinent to examine recent state 
legislation relating to industrial education. 

No attempt is made to give an exhaustive recapitulation of 
such legislation, and much that is more or less closely related to 
our subject must be ignored. For example, the activity of the 
National Child Labor Committee has brought about, during the 
last five years, important modifications in laws affecting child 
labor and compulsory school attendance, and has secured a more 
rigid enforcement of laws already on the statute books ; but 
while this "has a definite and important bearing on industrial 
education, it cannot be considered here. 

Similarly, since the legislation in certain of the Western states 
employs a phraseology which does not admit of a clear distinction 
between manual training and industrial education, it is omitted 
from this summary. 

The examples of state legislation which we shall examine 
relate directly to industrial education given in the upper elemen- 
tary grades and in the secondary schools of the existing public- 
school systems, or in specially organized schools for children 
above the compulsory age. 

In 1909 the American Association for Labor Legislation 
published a summary of legislation on industrial education 
in public schools. This summary was prepared by Professor 
Edward C. Elliott, of the University of Wisconsin. 

In Bulletm No. 12, issued by the National Society for the 
Promotion of Industrial Education in 19 10, this summary was 

267 



268 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

revised, and critical comments on the extant legislation on 
the subject were added by Mr. Charles A, Prosser, Deputy 
Commissioner of Education for Massachusetts. 

Vocational Education for September, 191 1, gave a brief 
abstract of the most recent additions to state legislation in the 
interests of industrial education. 

In making the following compilations from these sources and 
from the original texts, the author's purpose is to give some 
comprehension of the nature and extent of the influence which 
the people of the several states, acting through their legislatures, 
have brought to bear on the movement for industrial education. 

It is important to note whether the legislation is permissive 
or mandatory ; whether state aid is given, and under what con- 
ditions ; and with whom the initiative for providing industrial 
education rests. 

The states are considered alphabetically, and the chronology, 
so far as that is important, can be had by referring to the text. 
The laws of Massachusetts, New York, and Wisconsin are 
given in considerable detail because of their important dif- 
ferences and great suggestiveness. 

Connecticut 

The Connecticut scheme for public trade schools is unique in 
that such schools are completely and directly under the control 
of the state and may derive their entire support therefrom. 

The Laws of 1909, Chapter 85, authorize and direct the State 
Board of Education to establish two schools. A maximum of 
fifty thousand dollars annually may be expended by said board 
for their buildings, equipment, and maintenance. The local 
communities have no share in the control, but may contribute 
any sum, properly voted, to the enlargement of the school or for 
the improvement of its efficiency. 



STATE LEGISLATION 269 

Day, part-time, and evening classes are provided for, and the 
Board of Education is authorized to enter into cooperative ar- 
rangements with manufacturing and mechanical establishments. 
It is provided that no person under fourteen years of age shall 
be admitted, except that during vacations the board may admit 
such children. 

Indiana 

The new laws relating to industrial education in Indiana (Acts 
of 191 1) are two in number. The first is a special bill, and 
makes it possible for Indianapolis to acquire the Winona Tech- 
nical Institute. The second provides for a " commission for 
investigation of industrial and agricultural education," consisting 
of seven members to be appointed by the governor. The com- 
mission is to investigate the needs of education in the different 
industries of Indiana, and to see how far these needs are met 
by existing institutions. It is to consider what new forms of 
educational effort are advisable. It is to investigate also, by 
means of printed reports and the testimony of experts, what 
has been done in other states and in foreign countries in similar 
educational work. The committee is to hold hearings in at least 
five different communities, at which meetings the testimony of 
interested parties is to be taken. The report of the committee 
is to be sent to the legislature not later than January i, 191 3. 

Kansas 

Chapter 20 of the Laws of 1903 authorizes boards of edu- 
cation in cities of the first and second class to levy a special tax 
of one half mill (amended in 1909 to 1 mill), and in other cities 
and districts one mill (amended in 1909 to | mill), for the 
equipment and maintenance of industrial-training schools or 
industrial-training departments in the public schools. The statute 
provides for state aid equal to the amount contributed by the 



270 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



school district for such purpose, but not to exceed the sum of 
two hundred fifty dollars. The total sum contributed by the state 
is not to exceed ten thousand dollars in any one year. 

Maine 

The Laws of 191 1, Chapter 188, provide that the state super- 
intendent shall advise and aid in the introduction of industrial 
courses in free high schools and academies aided by the state. 
The act also provides for the introduction into all normal schools 
of courses in manual arts, domestic science, and agriculture suf- 
ficient to enable the graduates to teach elementary courses in 
rural and grade schools. In one normal school the courses are 
to be extended so as to prepare special teachers in manual train- 
ing, and in another to prepare special teachers in domestic 
science. For these two special courses an annual expenditure 
of four thousand dollars is authorized in addition to other 
appropriations. 

Whenever any elementary school provides instruction in 
manual training and domestic science that satisfies the require- 
ment of the state superintendent, two thirds of the cost of said 
instruction shall be paid by the state, up to eight hundred dol- 
lars per instructor. Two thirds of the cost of instruction shall 
be paid by the state to any high school providing instruction 
in agriculture, mechanic arts, or domestic science, not to exceed 
five hundred dollars annually for each school. State aid is also 
given to evening schools which include in their course of study 
free-hand or mechanical drawing, domestic science or manual 
training, or the elements of the trades. 

Any town may, by vote, require its school committee to 
establish and maintain as a part of the public-school system a 
general industrial school, open to all children who have com- 
pleted the elementary course, or who have attained the age of 
fifteen years, for the teaching of agriculture, household science, 



STATE LEGISLATION 271 

the mechanic arts, and the trades. Such schools must be sup- 
ported by funds additional to the regular school fund ; must be 
maintained for a period of thirty-six weeks during the school 
year ; must employ at least one teacher for the exclusive work 
of the school ; and must have an average attendance of at least 
twenty pupils. When these requirements are fulfilled the state 
will aid to the amount of two thirds of the cost of instruction, 
not to exceed two thousand dollars annually for any one town. 
The state provides for an annual appropriation of twenty-seven 
thousand five hundred dollars. 

Massachusetts 

Section 2, Chapter 42, Revised Laws of 1902, authorizes 
towns to maintain evening schools ; course of study including 
industrial drawing, both free-hand and mechanical. The main- 
tenance is mandatory for cities and towns of ten thousand or 
more population. 

Sections 20-22, Revised Laws of 1902, as amended; Chap- 
ter 248, Acts of 1904, authorize the organization of corporations 
for the conduct of textile schools and provide for instruction in 
the theory and practical art of textile and kindred branches of 
the industry. The schools are to be supported by appropriations 
from city and state. 

Chapter 94, Res. 1905. Establishes a commission to consider 
the needs for technical education in the different grades of indus- 
trial skill and responsibility. 

Chapter 505, Acts of 1906, as amended by Chapter 572, Acts 
of 1908, as amended by Chapter 540, Acts of 1909, provides 
for the appointment and organization of the Commission on 
Industrial Education ; defining duties, powers, and authority 
relative to the establishment and supervision of independent 
industrial schools throughout the state. The acts provide for 
state aid equal to one half of the local expenditure. 



272 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Chapter 64, Res. 1907, provides for inquiry into the organi- 
zation and methods of the textile schools of the commonwealth 
by the Commission on Industrial Education. 

Chapter 457, Acts of 1909, provides for the termination of 
the Commission on Industrial Education ; for the transfer of its 
duties, powers, and authority to the reorganized Board of Edu- 
cation ; and for the appointment of a commissioner of education, 
and two deputy commissioners, one of whom shall be especially 
qualified to deal with industrial education. 

Chapter 133, Res. 1910, provides for an investigation and 
report relative to the establishment of a system of agricultural 
schools. 

Chapter 471, Acts of 191 1, codifies and amends the laws 
relating to state-aided vocational education, and specifically re- 
peals all conflicting acts or parts of acts passed in previous 
years. 

Chapter 471, Acts of 191 1, begins by defining "vocational 
education," " industrial education," etc., as follows : 

Section i . The following words and phrases as used in this act shall, 
unless a different meaning is plainly required by the context, have the 
following meanings : 

1 . " Vocational education " shall mean any education the controlling 
purpose of which is to fit for profitable employment. 

2. " Industrial education" shall mean that form of vocational education 
which fits for the trades, crafts, and manufacturing pursuits, including the 
occupations of girls and women, carried on in workshops. 

3. " Agricultural education " shall mean that form of vocational education 
which fits for the occupations connected with the tillage of the soil, the care 
of domestic animals, forestry, and other wage-earning or productive work 
on the farm. 

4. " Household-arts education " shall mean that form of vocational educa- 
tion which fits for occupations connected with the household. 

5. " Independent industrial, agricultural, or household-arts school " shall 
mean an organization of courses, pupils, and teachers, under a distinctive 
management, approved by the Board of Education, designed to give either 
industrial, agricultural, or household-arts education as herein defined. 



STATE LEGISLATION 273 

6. " Evening class " in an industrial, agricultural, or household-arts school 
shall mean a class giving such training as can be taken by persons already 
employed during the working day, and which, in order to be called voca- 
tional, must, in its instruction, deal with the subject matter of the day em- 
ployment and be so carried on as to relate to the day employment. 

7. " Part-time or continuation class " in an industrial, agricultural, or 
household-arts school shall mean a vocational class for persons giving a 
part of their working time to profitable employment, and receiving in the 
part-time school instruction complementary to the practical work carried on 
in such employment. 

To give " a part of their working time " such persons must give a part 
of each day, week, or longer period to such part-time class during the period 
in which it is in session. 

8. " Independent agricultural school" shall mean either an organization 
of courses, pupils, and teachers under a distinctive management designed 
to give agricultural education, as hereinafter provided for ; or a separate 
agricultural department, offering in a high school, as elective work, training 
in the principles and practice of agriculture to an extent and of a character 
approved by the Board of Education as vocational. 

9. " Independent household-arts school " shall mean a vocational school 
designed to develop on a vocational basis the capacity for household work, 
such as cooking, household service, and other occupations in the household. 

STATE ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 
Section 2. The Board of Education is hereby authorized and directed to 
investigate and to aid in the introduction of industrial, agricultural, and 
household-arts education ; and to initiate and superintend the establishment 
and maintenance of schools of the aforesaid forms of education; and to 
supervise and approve such schools, as hereinafter provided. The Board 
of Education shall make a report annually to the general court, describing 
the condition and progress of industrial, agricultural, and household-arts 
education during the year, and making such recommendations as the board 
may deem advisable. 

TYPES OF SCHOOLS 
Section 3. In order that instruction in the principles and practice of the 
arts may go on together, independent industrial, agricultural, and household- 
arts schools may offer instruction in day, part-time, and evening classes. 
Attendance upon such day or part-time classes shall be restricted to those 
over fourteen and under twenty-five years of age ; and upon such evening 
classes, to those over seventeen years of age. 



2 74 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROL 

Section 4. Any city or town may, through its school committee or 
through a board of trustees elected by the city or town to serve for a period 
of not more than five years, and to be known as the Local Board of Trus- 
tees for Vocational Education, establish and maintain independent industrial, 
agricultural, and household-arts schools. 

Section 5. i. Districts composed of cities or towns, or of cities and towns, 
may, through a board of trustees to be known as the District Board of 
Trustees for Vocational Education, establish and maintain independent 
industrial, agricultural, or household-arts schools. Such district board of 
trustees may consist of the chairman and two other members of the school 
committee of each of such cities and towns, to be appointed for the purpose 
by each of the respective school committees thereof ; or any such city or 
town may elect three residents thereof to serve as its representatives on 
such district board of trustees. 

2. Such a district board of trustees for vocational education may adopt 
for a period of one year or more a plan of organization, administration, 
and support for the said schools, and the plan, if approved by the Board of 
Education, shall constitute a binding contract between the cities and towns 
which are, through the action of "their respective representatives on the 
district board of trustees, made parties thereto, and shall not be altered or 
annulled except by vote of two thirds of the board, and the consent of the 
Board of Education to such alteration or annulment. 

Section 6. Local and district boards of trustees for vocational education, 
administering approved industrial, agricultural, or household-arts schools, 
shall, under a scheme to be approved by the Board of Education, appoint 
an advisory committee composed of members representing local trades, 
industries, and occupations. It shall be the duty of the advisory committee to 
counsel with and advise the local or district board of trustees and other 
school officials having the management and supervision of such schools. 

Section 7 provides that residents of a district which does not 
provide a school of this type may request the Board of Educa- 
tion to admit them to the school of another city or town. The 
tuition is to be paid by the town where applicants reside, and said 
town is to be reimbursed in part by the state. 

Section 9. i. The commonwealth, in order to aid in the maintenance of 
approved local or district independent industrial or household-arts schools 
and of independent agricultural schools consisting of other than agricultural 



STATE LEGISLATION 275 

departments in high schools, shall, as provided in this act, pay annually from 
the treasury to cities and towns maintaining such schools an amount equal 
to one half the sum, to be known as the net maintenance sum. Such net 
maintenance sum shall consist of the total sum raised by local taxation and 
expended for the maintenance of such a school, less the amount, for the 
same period, of tuition claims, paid or unpaid, and receipts from the work 
of the pupils or the sale of products. 

2. Cities and towns maintaining approved local or district independent 
agricultural schools, consisting only of agricultural departments in high 
schools, shall be reimbursed by the commonwealth, as provided in this act, 
only to the extent of two thirds of the salary paid to the instructors in 
such agricultural departments ; provided that the total amount of money 
expended by the commonwealth in the reimbursement of such cities and 
towns for the salaries of such instructors for any given year shall not exceed 
ten thousand dollars. 

3. Cities and towns that have paid claims for tuition in approved local 
or district independent vocational schools shall be reimbursed by the com- 
monwealth, as provided in this act, to the extent of one half the sums ex- 
pended by such cities and towns in payment of such claims. 

Michigan 

Act 35, Laws of 1907, as amended by Acts of 1909, estab- 
lishes county schools of agriculture, manual training, and domestic 
economy. Instruction is to be given in the elements of agricul- 
ture, farm accounts, manual training, and domestic economy. It 
provides for general supervision by the state superintendent 
of public instruction, and for annual state aid equal to two thirds 
of the local expenditure. The maximum aid to be given to any 
one school is fixed at four thousand dollars. 

Act 228, Laws of 1909, provides for a state commission 
on industrial education, including elementary training in agri- 
culture. 

Act 22, Laws of 191 1, empowers school districts to establish 
and maintain trade, vocational, industrial, marine, and manual- 
training schools, gymnasiums, and scholarships, and to accept 
gifts, legacies, and devices for the same. This, however, was in 



276 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

the nature of a local act, and was intended to give a certain city 
the right to accept a bequest which had been made to it. 

Act 29, Laws of 191 1, amends the law in regard to county 
schools of agriculture, the state superintendent being allov/ed to 
approve two such schools in each county instead of one. 

New Jersev 

The Laws of 1903, Chapter i, extend state aid to school 
districts establishing and supporting industrial education or 
manual training in the course of study of the schools of the 
district. The aid so given equals the local expenditure, and 
provides that minimum local expenditure shall be two hundred 
fifty dollars. 

The Laws of 1907, Chapter 223, authorize expenditures for 
buildings for industrial education in cities of the second class. 

The Laws of 1908, Chapter 55, establish and maintain sum- 
mer courses of instruction in methods of teaching elementary 
agriculture, manual training, and home economics, and appro- 
priate two thousand dollars annually therefor. 

The Laws of ^908, Jt. Res. No. 9, authorize the appoint- 
ment of a commission to inquire into the subject of industrial 
education. Res-. No. 7 of the Laws of 1909 continued this 
commission. 

The Laws of 1881, Chapter 164, as amended by the Laws of 
1906, Chapter 20, as amended by the Laws of 1909, Chapter 
78, provide for the establishment of schools for industrial educa- 
tion by boards of education. The state grants aid equal to the 
local expenditures, up to a maximum of ten thousand dollars. 

The Laws of 191 1 provide that a commissioner of education 
be appointed by the governor for a term of five years. He is 
to have four deputy commissioners, one of whom is to devote 
his time to the inspection of industrial education, including 
agriculture. 



STATE LEGISLATION 277 

NEW YORKi 

Article 22. General Industrial Schools, Trade Schools, and 
Schools of Agriculture, Mechanic Arts, and Home-making 

Section 600. General industrial schools, trade schools, and schools of 
agriculture, mechanic arts, and home-making may be established in cities. 
The Board of Education of any city, and in a city not having a Board of 
Education the officer having the management and supervision of the public- 
school system, may establish, acquire, conduct, and maintain as a part of 
the public-school system of such city, the following : 

1. General industrial schools open to pupils who have completed the ele- 
mentary-school course, or who have attained the age of fourteen years, and : 

2. Trade schools open to pupils who have attained the age of sixteen 
years and have completed either the elementary-school course or a course 
in the above-mentioned general industrial school, or who have met such 
other requirements as the local school authorities may have prescribed. 

3. Schools of agriculture, mechanic arts, and home-making open to pupils 
who have completed the elementary-school course, or who have attained the 
age of fourteen, or who have met such other requirements as the local school 
authorities may have prescribed. 

Section 601. Such schools may be established in union free-school dis- 
tricts. The Board of Education of any union free-school district shall also 
establish, acquire, and maintain such schools for like purposes, whenever 
such schools shall be authorized by a district meeting. 

Section 602. Appointment of an advisory board. 

1 . The Board of Education in a city, and the officer having the manage- 
ment and supervision of the public-school system in a city not having a 
Board of Education, shall appoint an advisory board of five members, 
representing the local trades, industries, and occupations. . . . Any vacancy 
occurring on such board shall be filled by the appointing power named 
in this section, for the remainder of the unexpired term. 

2. It shall be the duty of such advisory board to counsel with and advise 
the Board of Education, or the officer having the management and super- 
vision of the public-school system in a city not having a Board of Education, 
in relation to the powers and duties vested in such board or officer by sec- 
tion 603 of this chapter. 

Section 603. Authority of the Board of Education over such schools. The 
Board of Education in a city, and the officer having the management and 
supervision of a public-school system in a city not having a Board of 

1 Extract from Education Law, 1910. 



2/8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Education, and the Board of Education in a union free-school district which 
authorizes the establishment of a general industrial school, a trade school, 
or a school of agriculture, mechanic arts, and home-making, is vested with 
the same power and authority over the management, supervision, and con- 
trol of such school, and the teachers or instructors employed therein, as 
such board or officer now has over the schools and teachers under their 
charge. Such boards of education or such officer shall also have full power 
and authority : 

1 . To employ competent teachers or instructors. 

2. To provide proper courses of study. 

3. To purchase or acquire sites and grounds, and to purchase, acquire, 
lease, or construct, and to repair suitable shops or buildings, and to properly 
equip the same. 

4. To purchase necessary machinery, tools, apparatus, and supplies. 
Section 604. State aid for general industrial schools, trade schools, and 

schools of agriculture, mechanic arts, and home-making. 

1. The commissioner of education in the annual apportionment of the 
state school moneys shall apportion therefrom to each city and union free- 
school district the sum of five hundred dollars for each independently or- 
ganized general industrial school, trade school, or a school of agriculture, 
mechanic arts, and home-making, maintained therein for thirty-eight weeks 
during the school year, and employing one teacher whose work is devoted 
exclusively to such school, and having an enrollment of at least twenty-five 
pupils, and maintaining a course of study approved by him. 

2. The commissioner of education shall also make an additional appor- 
tionment to each city and union free-school district of two hundred dollars 
for each additional teacher employed exclusively in such schools for thirty- 
eight weeks during the school year. 

3. The commissioner of education may, in his discretion, apportion to 
a district or city maintaining such schools, or employing such teachers for a 
shorter time than thirty-eight weeks, an amount pro rata to the time such 
schools are maintained or such teachers are employed. TJiis section shall 
not be const rned to entitle jnanual-training high schools, or other seconda7y 
schools maintaining tnanual-t raining departments, to an apportionment 
of funds herein provided for. 

Section 605. Application for such moneys. All moneys apportioned by 
the commissioner of education for general industrial or trade schools shall 
be used exclusively for the support and maintenance of such schools in 
the city or district to which such moneys are apportioned. 

Section 606. Annual estimate by Board of Education, and appropriations 
by municipal and school districts. 



STATE LEGISLATION 279 

1. The Board of Education of each city, or the officer having the man- 
agement and supervision of the pubHc-school system in a city not having a 
Board of Education, shall file with the common council of such city a 
written itemized estimate of the expenditures necessary for the maintenance 
of its general industrial schools, trade schools, or schools of agriculture, me- 
chanic arts, and home-making, and the estimated amount which the city will 
receive from the state school moneys applicable to the support of such 
schools. The common council shall give a public hearing to such persons 
as wish to be heard in reference thereto. The common council shall adopt 
such estimate, and after deducting therefrom the amount of state moneys 
applicable to the support of such schools, shall include the balance in the 
annual tax budget of such city. Such amount shall be levied, assessed, and 
raised by tax, upon the real and personal property liable to taxation in the 
city, at the time and in the manner that other taxes for school purposes 
are raised. The common council shall have power by a two-thirds vote to 
reduce or reject any item included in such estimate. 

2. The Board of Education in a union free-school district which main- 
tains a general industrial school, trade school, or a school of agriculture, 
mechanic arts, and home-making, shall include in its estimate of expenses, 
pursuant to the provisions of sections 323 and 327 of this chapter, the 
amount that will be required to maintain such schools, after applying toward 
the maintenance thereof the amount apportioned therefor by the commis- 
sioner of education. Such amount shall thereafter be levied, assessed, and 
raised by tax, upon the taxable property of the district at the time and in 
the manner that other taxes for school purposes are raised in such district. 

Section 607. Courses in schools of agriculture for the training of 
teachers. The state schools of agriculture at St. Lawrence University, at 
Alfred University, and at Morrisville may give courses for the training of 
teachers in agriculture, mechanic arts, domestic science, or home-making, 
approved by the commissioner of education. Such schools shall be entitled 
to an apportionment of money, as provided in section 604 of this chapter, 
for schools established in union free-school districts. Graduates from such 
approved courses may receive licenses to teach agriculture, mechanic arts, 
and home-making in the public schools of the state, subject to such rules 
and regulations as the commissioner of education may prescribe. 

Ohio 

The Laws of 1909 amending older laws authorize any Board 
of Education to establish and maintain manual-training, domestic- 
science, and commercial departments ; and agricultural, industrial, 



28o EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

vocational, and trade schools in connection with the public- 
school system. No state aid is provided. 

The Laws of 1910 provide that in case the Board of Educa- 
tion of any school district establishes part-time day schools for 
the instruction of youths over fourteen years of age who are en- 
gaged in regular employment, such Board of Education is 
authorized to require all youths who have not satisfactorily com- 
pleted the eighth grade of the elementary schools to continue 
their schooling until they are sixteen years of age ; provided, 
however, that such youths, if they have been granted age and 
schooling certificates and are regularly employed, shall be re- 
quired to attend school not to exceed eight hours a week between 
the hours of 8 a.m. and 5 p.m. during the school term. All 
youths between fourteen and sixteen years of age who are not 
employed shall be required to attend school the full time. 

The Cahill Act of 191 1 makes the teaching of agriculture man- 
datory in all of the common schools of the state excepting in the 
cities. A second bill requires that all teachers in these schools 
must, after September, 191 2, take an examination in agriculture. 

Oklahoma 

The Laws of 1908, Chapter 3, S.B. 109, put in force section 
7, Article 13, of the constitution, requiring the teaching of the 
elements of agriculture, horticulture, stock feeding, and domes- 
tic science in the common schools; create a commission for 
agricultural and industrial education ; provide for the establish- 
ment of departments of agricultural instruction in the state nor- 
mal schools, and for the chair of agriculture for schools in the 
agricultural and mechanical college ; and provide for the estab- 
lishment and maintenance of agricultural schools of secondary 
grade in each supreme-court judicial district, with branch agri- 
cultural experiment stations and short courses for farmers in 
connection therewith. 



STATE LEGISLATION 28 1 

Oregon 

Section 3442 of the code provides for the distribution of in- 
dustrial training, when required, through four years in district 
and county high schools. The Laws of 1907, p. 169, authorize 
the establishment of a department of industrial training in union 
high schools. 

Pennsylvania 

Pennsylvania has enacted a new school code (Acts of 191 1), 
several provisions of which have a bearing on vocational educa- 
tion. Article 4, on the duties and powers of boards of school 
directors, authorizes any board to establish, equip, furnish, and 
maintain the following additional schools or departments for the 
education and recreation of persons residing in said district, 
which said additional schools or departments, when established, 
shall be an integral part of the public-school district and shall 
be so administered : namely, high schools, manual-training 
schools, vocational schools, domestic-science schools, kindergar- 
tens, libraries, museums, reading rooms, gymnasiums, play- 
grounds, schools for blind, deaf, and mentally deficient, truant 
schools, parental schools, schools for adults, public lectures, to- 
gether with such other schools or educational departments as 
they, in their wisdom, may see proper to establish. 

Article 9 provides that the state Board of Education shall 
encourage and promote agricultural education, manual training, 
domestic science, and such other vocational and practical educa- 
tion as the needs of the commonwealth may require. 

Article 10 directs the state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion to appoint one expert assistant in agricultural education, 
one in industrial education, and one in drawing. 

Article 16, in prescribing the course of study for elementary 
schools, provides that there shall be taught the common English 
branches, together with such other branches, including drawing, 



282 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

physical training, elementary manual training, elementary do- 
mestic science, and elementary agriculture, as the board of school 
directors in any district may prescribe. 

Wisconsin ^ 

Section 926 : 22, as amended by Chapter 401, Acts of 1909. Any city 
in the state of Wisconsin or any school district having within its Umits a 
city desiring to establish, conduct, and maintain a school or schools for the 
purpose of giving practical instruction in the useful trades to young men 
having attained the age of fourteen years and young women having attained 
the age of fourteen years, as a part of the public-school system of such city, 
is empowered to do so by complying with the provisions of sections 926 : 
23 to 926 : 30 inclusive, of the Statutes of 1898. 

Section 926 : 23. Such trade school or schools shall be under the super- 
vision and control of the school boards of the respective cities or school 
districts in which they may be located. 

Section 926 : 24. The school board of every such city or school district 
is given full power and authority to establish, take over, and maintain a 
trade school or schools, equip the same with proper machinery and tools, 
employ a competent instructor or instructors, and give practical instruction 
in one or more of the common trades. Such a trade school shall not be 
maintained, however, unless there be an average enrollment of at least thirty 
scholars. 

Section 926:25. Whenever any school board shall have established 
or taken over an established trade school, such school board may prepare 
the course of study, employ instructors, purchase all machinery, tools, and 
supplies, purchase or lease suitable grounds or buildings for the use of 
such school, and exercise the same authority over such school which it now 
has over the schools under its charge. 

Section 926: 26, as amended by Chapter 155, Acts of 1909. Whenever 
any school board shall have established or taken over an already established 
trade school or schools, it may appoint an advisory committee to be known 
as the committee on trade schools, consisting of five citizens not members 
of the school board, each of whom is experienced in one or more of the 
trades to be taught in the school or schools, to assist in the administration 
of the trade school or schools located in that city, which committee shall be 
appointed by the president of such school board with the approval of the 
majority of the board. Such committee shall have authority, subject to the 

^ Extracts from education and apprenticeship laws. 



STATE LEGISLATION 283 

approval and ratifications of the school board, to prepare courses of study, em- 
ploy or dismiss instructors, purchase machinery, tools, and supplies, and pur- 
chase or rent suitable grounds or buildings for the use of such trade schools. 

Section 926:27. Students attending any such trade school may be 
required to pay for all material consumed by them in their work in such 
school at cost prices, or in lieu thereof the school board may establish a 
fixed sum to be paid by each student in each course, which sum shall be 
sufficient to cover as nearly as may be the cost of the material to be con- 
sumed in such course ; any manufactured articles made in such school may 
be disposed of at the discretion of the school board, and the proceeds shall 
be paid into the trade-school fund. 

Section 926 : 28. Whenever any such school board shall have decided to 
establish a trade school or schools, or to take over one already established 
under the provisions of this act, a tax not exceeding one half of one mill 
on the total assessed valuation of such city shall be levied, upon the requisi- 
tion of the school board, as other school taxes are levied in such city ; the 
fund derived from such taxation shall be known as the trade-school fund, 
shall be used in establishing and maintaining a trade school or trade schools 
in such city, shall not be diverted or used for any other purpose whatsoever, 
and may be disposed of and disbursed by the school board of such city in 
the same manner and pursuant to the same regulations governing the 
disposition and disbursement of regular school funds by such boards. 

Section 926 : 29. Any school board desiring to avail itself of the provi- 
sions of this act may, before the trade-school fund herein provided for becomes 
available, establish, take over, equip, and maintain a trade school or schools 
out of the regular school funds which may be at the disposal of such school 
board ; provided, however, that all moneys used for these purposes out of 
the regular school funds shall be refunded within three years from the 
trade-school fund. 

Section 926 : 30. i . When the school board of any city of the second, 
third, or fourth class, or the school board of any school district having within 
its limits such a city, shall determine to establish, take over, conduct, or 
maintain such trade school, it shall publish notice of its intention so to do, 
with a copy of the resolutions or order expressing such determination, once 
each week for four successive weeks in a newspaper published in said 
school district, and shall take no further steps in said matter until the expi- 
ration of thirty days from the date of the first publication. 

2. If within such thirty days there shall be filed with the clerk of such 
city a petition signed by a number of electors of the school district equal to 
twenty per centum of the number of votes cast in the said city at the last 
municipal election, praying that the question of the establishment, taking 



284 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

over, conduct, and maintenance of such trade school shall be submitted to 
the vote of the electors of such school district, the city clerk shall at the 
earliest opportunity lay such petition before the common council. The com- 
mon council shall thereupon at its next regular meeting, by resolution or 
ordinance, direct the city clerk to call a special election for the purpose of 
submitting such question to the electors of such city and school district. 

5. If a majority of the ballots cast in such school district shall be in favor 
of the establishment, taking over, conducting, or maintenance of such trade 
school, then such board shall proceed, as heretofore provided, to establish, 
take over, conduct, and maintain such trade school. But if a majority shall 
vote against such proposition to establish, take over, conduct, and maintain 
a trade school, the board shall take no further steps toward such end. 

6. If no petition to submit such proposition to establish, take over, or 
maintain a trade school to the vote of the electors shall be filed with the 
city clerk within thirty days after the first publication of the notice of the 
determination of the school board to take such action, then such school 
board may proceed as hereinbefore provided, without submitting such prop- 
osition to the electors of the district. 



Acts of 191 i. Chapter 347. Employment of Children — 
Apprenticeship 

Section i. Sections 2377 and 2394, inclusive, of the statutes are 
repealed. 

Section 2. There are added to the statutes eleven new sections to read : 

Section 2377. Every contract or agreement entered into between a minor 
and employer, by which the minor is to learn a trade, shall be known as an 
indenture, and shall comply with the provisions of sections 2378 to 2386, 
inclusive, of the statutes. Every minor entering into such a contract shall 
be known as an apprentice. 

Section 2378. Any minor may, by the execution of an indenture, bind 
himself 'as hereinafter provided, and such indenture may provide that the 
length of the term of the apprentice shall depend upon the degree of effi- 
ciency reached in the work assigned, but no indenture shall be made for 
less than one year, and if the minor is less than eighteen years of age, the 
indenture shall in no case be for a period of less than two years. 

Section 2379. Any person or persons apprenticing a minor or forming 
any contractual relation in the nature of an apprenticeship, without comply- 
ing with the provisions of sections 2377 to 2387, inclusive, of the statutes, 
shall upon conviction thereof be punished by a fine of not less than fifty 
nor more than one hundred dollars. 



STATE LEGISLATION 285 

Section 2380. It shall be the duty of the commissioner of labor, the 
factory inspector, or assistant factory inspectors to enforce the provisions 
of this act, and to prosecute violations of the same before any court of 
competent jurisdiction in this state. 

Section 2381. Every indenture shall be signed: 

1. By the minor. 

2. By the father ; and if the father be dead or legally incapable of giv- 
ing consent or has abandoned his family, then 

3. By the mother; and if both father and mother be dead or legally 
incapable of giving consent, then 

4. By the guardian of the minor, if any. 

5. If there be no parent or guardian with authority to sign, then by two 
justices of the peace of the county of residence of the minor. 

6. By the employer. 

Section 2382. Every indenture shall contain: 1 

1 . The names of the parties. 

2. The date of birth of the minor. 

3. A statement of the trade the minor is to be taught, and the time at 
which the apprenticeship shall begin and end. 

4. An agreement stating the number of hours to be spent in work, and 
the number of hours to be spent in instruction. The total of such number 
of hours shall not exceed fifty-five in any one week. 

5. An agreement that the whole trade, as carried on by the employer, 
shall be taught, and an agreement as to the time to be spent at each process 
or machine. 

6. An agreement between the employer and the apprentice that not less 
than five hours per week of the afore-mentioned fifty-five hours per week 
shall be devoted to instruction. Such instruction shall include : 

{a) Two hours a week instruction in English, in citizenship, business 
practice, physiology, hygiene, and the use of safety devices. 

[b) Such other branches as may be approved by the State Board of In- 
dustrial Education. 

7. A statement of the compensation to be paid the apprentice. 
Section 2383. The instruction specified in section 2382 may be given 

in a public school, or in such other manner as may be approved by the Local 
Board of Industrial Education, and if there be no local board, subject to the 
approval of the State Board of Industrial Education. Attendance at the public 
school, if any, shall be certified to by the teachers in charge of the courses, 
and failure to attend shall subject the apprentice to the penalty of the loss 
of compensation for three hours for every hour such apprentice shall be 
absent without good cause. It shall be the duty of the school officials to 
cooperate for the enforcement of this law. 



286 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Section 2384. It shall be lawful to include in the indenture or agreement 
an article stipulating that during such period of the year as the public school 
shall not be in session the employer and the apprentice may be released 
from those portions of the indenture which affect the instruction to be given. 

Section 2385. If either party to an indenture shall fail to perform any 
of the stipulations, he shall forfeit not less than ten nor more than fifty 
dollars, on complaint, the collection of which may be made by the com- 
missioner of labor, factory inspector, or assistant factory inspectors in any 
court of competent jurisdiction in this state. Any court of competent juris- 
diction may in its discretion also annul the indenture. Nothing herein pre- 
scribed shall deprive the employer of the right to dismiss any apprentice 
who has willfully violated the rules and regulations applying to all workmen. 

Section 2386. The employer shall give a bonus of not less than fifty 
dollars to the apprentice on the expiration of the term of the indenture, 
and also a certificate stating the term of the indenture. 

Section 2387. A certified copy of every indenture by which any minor 
may be apprenticed shall be filed by the employer with the state commis- 
sioner of labor. 

Section 3. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its 
passage and publication. 

Approved June 15, 191 1. 

Chapter 505. Employment of Children — Schools 

Section i . There is added to the statutes a new section, to read : 
Section 1728c: i. i. Whenever any evening school, continuation classes, 
industrial school, commercial school, shall be established in any town, village, 
or city in this state for minors between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, 
every employer shall allow all minor employees over fourteen and under 
sixteen years of age a reduction in hours of work of not less than the 
number of hours the minor may by law be required to attend school. 

2. The total number of hours spent by such minors at work and in the 
before-mentioned schools shall together not exceed the total number of hours 
of work for which minors over fourteen and under sixteen years of age 
may by law be employed, except when the minor shall attend school a 
greater number of hours than is required by law, in which case the total 
number of hours may be increased by the excess of the hours of school 
attendance over the minimum prescribed by law. 

3. Employers shall allow the reduction in hours of work at the time 
when the classes which the minor is by law required to attend are held, 
whenever the working time and the class time coincide. 



STATE LEGISLATION 287 

4. Any violation of this section shall be punished, as is provided in the 
case of violation of section 1728a of the statutes. 

Section 2. All acts and parts of acts conflicting with any provisions of 
this act are repealed in so far as they are inconsistent therewith. 

Section 3. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its 
passage and publication. 

Approved June 30, 191 1. 

Chapter 544. Industrial Education — Salaries of Teachers 

Section i . There is added to the statutes a new section, to read : 
Section 5531 : i. No state aid shall be granted to any school for instruc- 
tion given in agriculture, domestic economy, manual-training, or industrial 
branches unless the salary paid to every teacher instructing in such subjects 
be at least at the rate of sixty dollars per month. 

Chapter 616. Industrial Education — Duties and Powers of 
State and Local Boards 

Section i . There are added to the statutes thirteen new sections, to read : 
Section 553P : i. i. There is hereby created a State Board of Industrial 
Education to be appointed by the governor. The board shall consist of six 
appointive members, three of whom shall be employers of labor and three of 
v/hom shall be skilled employees. The state superintendent of education and 
the dean of the extension department and the dean of the college of engineer- 
ing of the University of Wisconsin shall be ex officio members of this board. 

2. Each appointive member shall hold office for two years and shall 
receive traveling expenses and one hundred dollars per year. In the first 
appointments the governor shall designate three members to serve for one 
year and three members to serve for two years from the first day of July 
of the year in which the appointments are made. All appointments there- 
after shall be for two years except appointments to fill vacancies, which 
shall be for the unexpired portion of the term. 

3. Said board {a) shall have control over all state aid given under this 
act ; {b) shall meet quarterly and at such other times as may be found neces- 
sary ; {c) shall report biennially. 

Section 5S3p : 2. i. The state superintendent of education shall appoint 
an assistant in the department of public instruction, to be known as the as- 
sistant for industrial education. He shall, with the advice, consent, and 
direction of the state superintendent of education, have general supervision 
over the public industrial schools and over all public evening schools, con- 
tinuation schools, and commercial schools created under this act. The laws 



288 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

relating to agricultural schools and the Platteville Mining Trade School shall 
remain unaffected by this act. 

2. The salary of the assistant shall be fixed by the state superintendent 
of education with the approval of the State Board of Industrial Education. 

3. The state superintendent of education shall have, in addition to the 
assistant for industrial education, such other assistants as he shall deem 
necessary for work in the same general field. 

4. All positions except that of assistant for industrial education shall be 
filled by civil service examination, as provided by Chapter 363 of the Laws 
of 1905. But the total salary list, exclusive of the salary of the assistant, 
shall not exceed ten thousand dollars for any one year. 

5. The assistant shall have all necessary expenses to attend conventions 
and make investigations within or outside of the state when such expenses 
shall have been previously authorized by the state superintendent of edu- 
cation. 

Section 553p ".3. i. In every town or village or city of over five thousand 
inhabitants there shall be, and in the towns, cities, and villages of less than 
five thousand inhabitants there may be, a local board of industrial educa- 
tion, whose duty it shall be to foster and establish and maintain industrial, 
commercial, continuation, and evening schools. Said board may take over 
and maintain in the manner provided in this act any existing schools of 
similar nature. 

2. Such board shall consist of the city superintendent of schools ex 
officio, or the principal of the high school ex officio, if there be no city 
superintendent, or the president or chairman of the local board charged 
with the supervision of the schools in case there be neither of the above- 
mentioned officers, and four other members, two employers and two 
employees, who shall be appointed by the local board charged with the super- 
vision of the schools, and who shall serve without pay. 

3. The term of the appointive members of the local boards of industrial 
education shall be two years from the first of January of the year in which 
they are appointed. 

4. The local board of industrial education shall elect its officers from its 
membership — a chairman and a secretary. The local boards of industrial 
education, with the cooperation of the State Board of Industrial Educadon, 
shall have general supervision of the instruction in the local schools created 
under this act. 

5. No state aid shall be granted to schools created under this act without 
the approval of the local board of industrial education. No money appro- 
priated by the city, town, or village for these schools shall be spent without 
the approval of the local board of industrial education. 



STATE LEGISLATION 289 

6. The teachers in the schools created under this act shall be employed 
and their qualifications determined by the local board of industrial edu- 
cation. 

7. This board shall have power to purchase all machinery, tools, and 
supplies, and purchase or lease suitable grounds or buildings for the use 
of the schools under its supervision. Existing school buildings and equip- 
ment shall be used as far as practicable. 

8. The board is empowered to make contracts with the extension division 
of the University of Wisconsin to give instruction in such branches as the 
department may offer when, in the judgment of the local board, such in- 
struction can be secured to better advantage than by local provision. 

g. Whenever twenty-five persons qualified to attend an industrial, com- 
mercial, continuation, or evening school file a petition therefor with the local 
board of industrial education, the board shall establish such school or schools 
or provide other facilities as authorized in this act. 

Section 5S3p:4. i. The local board of industrial education of every 
city, village, or town shall report to the common council, or village or town 
clerk, at or before the first day of September, in each year, the amount of 
money required for the next fiscal year for the support of all the schools 
established or to be established under this act in said city, village, or town, and 
for the purchase of necessary additions to school sites, fixtures, and supplies. 

2. There shall be levied and collected in every city, village, or town, 
subject to taxation under this act, a tax upon all taxable property in said 
city, village, or town, at the same time and in the same manner as other 
taxes are levied and collected by law, which, together with the other funds 
provided by law and placed at the disposal of said city, village, or town for 
the same purpose, shall be equal to the amount of money so required by 
said local board of industrial education for the purposes of this act. 

3. The rate of tax levied for the purposes of this act in any town, village, 
or city shall not in any one year exceed one half mill for the maintenance 
of all schools created under this act. 

4. The said taxes for the purpose named in this section shall be in 
addition to all other general and special taxes levied for town, village, or 
city purposes, and shall be for the use and support of schools established 
under this act. 

5. The treasurer of the town, village, or city shall keep such money 
separate from all other money, to be used exclusively for the purpose of 
industrial education as herein provided. All moneys appropriated and ex- 
pended under this act shall be expended by the local board of industrial 
education and shall be paid by the town, village, or city treasurer on orders 
issued by said board and signed by its president and secretary. 



290 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

6. All moneys received by said board shall be paid to the town, village, 
or city treasurer for the fund of the local board of industrial education. 

Section S53P- 5- i- The course of study in these schools shall be ap- 
proved by the state superintendent of education and the State Board of 
Industrial Education, and shall include English, citizenship, sanitation, and 
hygiene, and the use of safety devices and such other branches as the state 
superintendent and the State Board of Industrial Education shall approve. 

2. The local board of industrial education may allow pupils attending 
any school established under this act, who have had courses equivalent to 
any of those offered, to substitute other work therefor. 

Section 553p : 6. i. Not more than ten thousand dollars shall be appro- 
priated from the state funds for the purposes of this act in any one city, 
town, or village, and state aid shall not be given to more than thirty schools 
established under this act. 

2. A school once granted state aid shall be entitled thereto as long as 
the character of its work meets with the approval of the state superintendent 
of education and the State Board of Industrial Education. 

3. The secretary of the local board of industrial education of each city, 
town, or village in which such school or schools are maintained shall, on 
the first day of July in each year, report to the state superintendent of edu- 
cation the cost of maintaining the school, the character of the work done, 
the number, names, and qualifications of the teachers employed, and such 
other information as may be required by the state superintendent of 
education. 

4. I f such report is satisfactory to the state superintendent of education 
and the State Board of Industrial Education, and they are satisfied that the 
school or schools have been maintained in a satisfactory manner for not less 
than eight months during the year ending the thirtieth of the preceding 
June, the state superintendent of education shall make a certificate to that 
effect and file it with the secretary of state. The secretary of state shall 
then draw a warrant payable to the treasurer of such city, town, or village 
in which the industrial school is located for a sum equal to one half the 
amount actually expended in such industrial school, continuation school, 
evening school, or commercial school during the preceding year, but not 
more than three thousand dollars shall be appropriated to any one school 
in one year. 

Section 553p:7. i. The schools established under this act shall be 
opened to all residents of the cities, towns, and villages in which such 
schools are located, of fourteen years of age or over, who are not by law 
required to attend other schools. Any person over the age of fourteen who 
shall reside in any town, village, or city not having an industrial school as 



STATE LEGISLATION 29 1 

provided in this act, and who is otherwise qualified to pursue the course of 
study, may with the approval of the local board of industrial education in 
any town, village, or city having a school established under this act, be 
allowed to attend any school under their supervision. Such persons shall 
be subject to the same rules and regulations as pupils of the school who 
are residents of the town, village, or city in which the school is located. 

Section SS3P : 8. i. The local board of education is authorized to charge 
tuition fee for the nonresident pupils not to exceed fifty cents per week. 
On or before the first day of July in each year the secretary of the local 
board of industrial education shall send a sworn statement to the clerk of 
the city, village, or town from which any such person or persons may have 
been admitted. This statement shall set forth the residence, name, age, and 
date of entrance to such school, and the number of weeks' attendance dur- 
ing the preceding year of each such person at the school. It shall show 
the amount of tuition which, under the provisions of this act, the town, 
village, or city is entitled to receive on account of each and all such pupils' 
attendance. This statement shall be filed as a claim against the town, vil- 
lage, or city where the pupil resides and allowed as other claims are allowed. 

Section 553p:9. Students attending any school under this act may be 
required to pay for all material consumed by them in their work in such 
school at cost prices, or in lieu thereof the school board may establish a 
fixed sum to be paid by each student in each course, which sum shall be 
sufficient to cover, as nearly as may be, the cost of the material to be con- 
sumed in such course ; any manufactured articles made in such school, and 
that may accumulate, shall 'oe disposed of at their market value at the dis- 
cretion of the school board, and the proceeds shall be paid to the local 
treasurer for the fund of the local board of industrial education. 

Section 553p: 10. The State Board of Industrial Education shall also 
constitute a body corporate under the name of the " Board of Trustees of the 
Stout Institute," and shall possess all powers necessary or convenient to 
accomplish the objects and perform the duties prescribed by law. In such 
capacity such board shall also employ such clerks and assistants as may be 
necessary to properly conduct' its affairs. The state treasurer shall be ex 
officio treasurer of the board, but the board may appoint a suitable person 
to receive fees or other moneys that may be due such board, to disburse 
any part thereof, to account therefor, and to pay the balance to the state 
treasurer. 

Section 553P : 1 1. Such board is authorized to accept, free of cost to the 
state, and to hold as a trustee for the state, the property of the Stout Insti- 
tute located at Menominee, Wisconsin, and to maintain such institute under 
the name of " The Stout Institute " ; provided that the trustees of said 



292 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



Stout Institute turn over to the state, within two months after the passage 
and publication of this act, said property free and clear of all encumbrances 
and debt, released from all claims or interest which the city of Menominee 
or the heirs of James H. Stout may have had in said property, and having 
put the buildings in good condition and having made such repairs as may 
be necessary before turning over said property. The board is also author- 
ized to accept such other property or moneys as it may deem advisable to 
be accepted, which can profitably be used by it in promoting the interests 
intrusted to it. Such boards may purchase, have, hold, control, possess, and 
enjoy in trust for the state, for educational purposes, any lands, tenements, 
hereditaments, goods and chattels, of any nature, which may be necessary 
and required to accomplish the purpose and objects of the board, and may 
sell or dispose of any personal property when in its judgment it shall be 
for the interests of the state. 

Section 553p: 12. The purposes and objects of the institute shall be to 
instruct young persons in industrial arts and occupations, and the theory 
and art of teaching such, and to give such instruction as will lead to a fair 
knowledge of the liberal arts, a just and seemly appreciation of the nobility 
and dignity of labor, and in general to promote diligence, economy, effi- 
ciency, honor, and good citizenship. 

Section 553p : 13. The said board shall have power: 

1. To make rules, regulations, and by-laws for the government and 
management of the institute and the students therein, including the power 
to suspend or expel students for misconduct or other cause. 

2. To appoint a president of the institute and other officers, teachers, 
and assistants, and to employ such other persons as may be required ; to 
fix the salary of each person so appointed or employed, and to prescribe 
their several duties ; to remove at pleasure any president, other officer, 
teacher, assistant, or person from any office or employment in connection 
with the institute. 

3. To purchase such supplies as may be necessary in the conduct of the 
institute and its various departments. 

4. To prescribe rules, regulations, and terms for the admission and con- 
trol of the students, to prescribe courses of study and methods and means 
of instruction, and to issue certificates or diplomas. 

5. To cooperate with other educational institutions and agencies in m- 
struction and training leading to efficiency in industrial arts and occupations. 

Section 2. There is hereby appropriated out of any money in the state 
treasury not otherwise appropriated, a sum sufficient to carry into effect the 
provisions of this act. However, in no case shall the sum appropriated for 
the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this act exceed the sum of 



STATE LEGISLATION 293 

thirty thousand dollars during the fiscal year ending July i, 191 2, nor more 
than fifty-five thousand dollars per annum thereafter. Twenty thousand 
dollars of the above moneys shall be set aside annually, beginning July i, 
1911, for the purpose of maintaining the Stout Institute as provided in 
this act. 

Section 3. All acts and parts of acts conflicting with any provisions of 
this act are repealed in so far as they are inconsistent therewith ; provided, 
however, nothing in this act shall be construed to interfere in any manner 
with trade schools established under Chapter 122, Laws of 1907 (sections 
926: 22 to 926: 30 of the Annotated Statutes), and amendments thereof, 
unless the school board of any such city or school district shall by a majority 
vote adopt the provisions of this act, and shall proceed in the manner pro- 
vided for, for every town, village, or city of over five thousand inhabitants 
as provided in this act. 

Section 4. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its 
passage and publication. 

Approved July 7, 1911. 

Chapter 660. Industrial Education — Attendance of Minors 
AT School required 

Section i. Subsection i of section 1728c: i of the statutes is amended, 
to read : 

Section 1728c: i. Whenever any evening school, continuation classes, 
industrial school, or commercial school shall be established in any town, 
village, or city in this state for minors between the ages of fourteen and 
sixteen, working under permit as now provided by law, every such child 
residing within any town, village, or city in which any such school is estab- 
lished, shall attend such school not less than five hours per week for six 
months in each year, until such child becomes sixteen years of age ; and 
every employer shall allow all minor employees over fourteen and under 
sixteen years of age a reduction in hours of work of not less than the num- 
ber of hours the minor ... is by this section required to attend school. 

Section 2. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its 
passage and publication. 

Approved July 14, 191 1. 



The Wisconsin laws are more complete than those of any- 
other state, since they correlate the regulations pertaining to 
school attendance, child labor, apprenticeship, and education. 



294 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Combined Agriculture, Manual Arts, and Home 
Economics 

As indicative of the practice of combining agriculture, manual 
training, and home economics in the legislative enactments in 
agricultural states, and also as showing the growing interest in 
a practical education, the following legislation is noted. 

MINNESOTA 

Chapter 314, Laws of 1905, establishes and provides for the 
organization and maintenance of county schools of agriculture 
and domestic science, creates county school boards of control, 
and provides state aid to not more than two schools. Instruction 
is to be given in agriculture, farm accounts, manual training, and 
domestic economy. 

Chapter 247, Laws of 1909, provides for the establishment 
and maintenance of departments of agriculture, manual training, 
and domestic economy in state high, graded, and consolidated 
schools, and authorizes rural schools to become associated with 
such state graded or high schools. It extends state aid equal to 
twice the amount of local expenditure and fixes the maximum 
annual aid to any one school at $2500, and the maximum number 
of schools to be aided at ten. It appropriates $25,000 for 19 10 
and $25,000 for 19 11. 

The Laws of 191 1 reenact, by the Putnam Act, the legislation 
of 1909 with but minor modifications. The new features are : 

First. An increase from ten to thirty of the number of schools 
to be designated to undertake the industrial work, thus adding 
twenty schools. (These were designated by the High School 
Board, April 22.) 

Second. A provision for additional aid of $200 for each rural 
school district associating, $1 50 being paid to the central school 
and $50 to the rural school. 



STATE LEGISLATION 



'95 



Third. Permitting tuition, not to exceed $2.50 a month per 
pupil, to be charged nonresident students taking the industrial 
work, the tuition to be paid by the school district in which the 
pupil resides. 

Foitrth. Permitting the rural schools associating to levy a 
tax for an industrial building in connection with the central 
school. This is merely a permissive provision; the matter is 
to be determined by each rural school district associating. 

Fifth. Raising the minimum tax levy to be imposed on the 
associated schools to two mills, and removing the maximum limi- 
tation of four mills in the old law. 

Sixth. Permitting a tract of land for experimental purposes 
to be acquired in one or more of the associated rural districts. 

A part of section 3 reads : " The instruction in such agricul- 
tural and industrial department shall be of a practical character, 
dealing with soils, crops, fertilizers, drainage, farm machinery, 
farm buildings, breeds of live stock, live-stock judging, animal 
diseases and remedies, production of milk and cream, testing of 
same, manufacture of butter and cheese, horticulture, garden- 
ing, plants, and such other questions as have a direct relation 
to the business of farming, including bookkeeping and farm 
accounts. It shall also include systematic courses in manual 
training, and in home economics, as these are usually taught in 
public schools." 

Chapter 91, a companion act to the Putnam Act, provides 
for establishing a course in agriculture and in either home 
economics or manual training in any high or graded school. 
One thousand dollars special aid is provided for each school. 
The High School Board is directed to designate the high or 
graded schools in which this work may be undertaken. An ap- 
propriation of $50,000 for the next school year, and $75,000 for 
the second year, is made. It will be understood that rural schools 
may associate to receive the benefits of industrial training under 



296 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

this act in the same manner as under the Putnam Act. The 
additional aid of $200 for association does not extend to the 
schools maintaining industrial departments under this chapter 
[91]. Rural schools associated under either act, however, may 
receive the special state aid of $150, $100, or $75 provided for 
common schools under Chapter 60. 

Chapter 207, an act relating to the consolidation of rural 
schools, and known as the Holmberg Act, provides that each 
consolidated school must be in session for eight months and 
must employ a principal who has special training and prepara- 
tion for directing the teaching of agriculture and other industrial 
lines. A school of Class A must provide a building of four 
rooms or departments, and will receive state aid of $1500. A 
school of Class B must provide a building of three rooms and 
will receive state aid of $1000. One of Class C must be a two- 
department school and will receive $750 aid. Additional aid 
for the erection of a school building for either class, to the 
amount of 25 per cent of the cost and not exceeding $1500, 
is also provided. 

NORTH DAKOTA 

The legislature of 191 1 passed a law providing state aid for 
rural and graded schools. The graded schools are divided into 
two classes, both of which must include in their courses of study 
two-year high-school courses as suggested by the State High 
School Board, such courses, for example, as domestic science, 
manual training, and elementary agriculture, and must comply 
with such rules as may be established by the state superintendent 
of public instruction. 

The rural schools are divided into two classes, both of which 
must include in their course of study elementary agriculture. 
To these four classes of schools are given annually by the state 
$150, $100, $100, and $50 respectively, upon compliance with 



STATE LEGISLATION 297 

certain conditions, including those stated above. Further state 
aid is offered as a premium for consolidation. 

The new law, which went into effect July i, 191 1, provides 
for the maintenance of agricultural, manual-training, and do- 
mestic-economy departments in high schools. Any state high, 
graded, or consolidated rural school having satisfactory rooms 
and equipment, and having shown itself fitted by location and 
otherwise to do agricultural work, may, upon application to the 
High School Board, be designated to maintain an agricultural 
department. 

Each of such schools shall employ trained instructors in 
agriculture, manual training, and domestic science (including 
cooking and sewing), and shall have connected therewith, so 
long as they shall enjoy the benefits of this act, a tract of land 
suitable for a school garden and purposes of demonstration, con- 
taining not less than ten acres and located within one mile of 
the school buildings. 

Instruction in the industrial department herein provided 
shall be free to all residents of this state. Where necessary to 
accommodate a reasonable number of boys and girls able to attend 
only in the winter months, special classes shall be formed for 
them. Said department shall offer instruction in soils, crops, 
fertilizers, drainage, farm machiner)^, farm buildings, breeds of 
live stock, stock judging, animal diseases and remedies, produc- 
tion, testing, and hauling of milk and cream, the manufacture 
of butter and cheese, the growth of fruit and berries, manage- 
ment of orchards, market-garden and vegetable crops, cereal 
grains, fine seeds, bookkeeping and farm accounts, and all other 
matters pertaining to general practice. 

Each of said schools shall receive state aid to the sum of 
$2500, and its proportionate share of all moneys appropriated 
by the national government for the teaching of elementary or 
secondary agriculture in the public or high schools of this state, 



298 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

but shall not participate in the state aid now being given to the 
state high schools. Not more than five schools shall be aided 
the first year, nor more than five be added to the list every two 
years thereafter ; provided that not more than one school in 
any county shall be added to the list of state schools receiving 
state aid under this act in any two years. 

For the purpose of extending the teaching of agriculture, 
home economics, and manual training to pupils in rural schools, 
and for the purpose of extending the influence and supervision 
of state high or graded schools, one or more rural schools may 
become associated with any state high or graded school main- 
taining a department of agriculture, whether or not such high 
or graded school has been designated by the State Agricultural 
High School Board to receive aid under the provisions of 
this act. 

VERMONT 

By an act approved in January, 1909, any high or grammar 
school whose course of study or outline of work in manual 
training has been approved by the state superintendent of 
education, may, upon application, be placed upon an approved 
list of schools maintaining manual-training departments. A 
school once entered upon such list may remain there and be 
entitled to state aid so long as the scope and character of its 
work are maintained in such a manner as to meet the approval 
of such superintendent. 

Two or more towns may unite as a district for the mainte- 
nance of the indiistnal schools provided for in the preceding 
section, but no such district should be created without the 
approval of the superintendent of education. 

Approved January 27, 1909. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 

While agricultural education does not come properly within 
our subject, since it is coordinate with, rather than a phase of, 
industrial education, it should be noted that there is a strong 
demand for this form of training throughout the country. Per- 
haps the most significant statement that can be made about it 
is that here, too, the demand is for a training which will reach 
the elementary grades through the training of teachers for rural 
schools, and for the establishment of thoroughly practical courses 
of agriculture, instead of courses in "high-school botany," for 
the secondary schools. Where such courses have been intro- 
duced, theory has not been omitted or minimized but has been 
immediately related to farm practices, and both experimentation 
and demonstration have been deemed fundamentally important. 

While educators have been quicker to see the need of agricul- 
tural education than they have been to appreciate the needs of the 
industrial workers, and while they have brought the higher insti- 
tutions for agricultural education nearer and nearer to the people, 
it remains for the practical men of affairs to see and to state 
the problem most clearly and to demand a thorough revision of 
our educational ideals and practices in rural communities. 

One of the most searching and constructive discussions of this 
problem which has yet appeared is here given, partly for its in- 
trinsic value and partly as corroborative of the main thesis of 
this volume, that specialized education will increase rather than 
diminish general education, and will thus insure a wider distribu- 
tion of general intelligence. 

299 



300 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Education for the Iowa Farm Boy ^ 

By H. C. Wallace 

Associate Editor of W^iUace's Fanner 

In recent years the higher prices of agricultural products and the 
consequent higher cost of living have turned the attention of the 
nation, and especially of the residents of cities, sharply toward 
the need for better farming and bigger crops. There has been 
widespread complaining against the farmer. He has for genera- 
tions been making a bare living for his family. He has sold the 
fruits of his labor, not for what he might determine to be a fair 
price after making due allowance for the money invested and the 
labor expended, but for what the buyer has been willing to pay. 
If the average farmer has made money, it has been by the work 
of his children, by saving, — through the practice of the strictest 
economy, — and by the increase in the value of his land through 
the growth in population. If the average farmer should deduct 
from his gross earnings a fair interest on the money invested in 
land and equipment, make a reasonable allowance for deprecia- 
tion of equipment, and pay a fair price for all the labor used 
aside from his own, he would have for his own labor, during a 
ten-year period, less than the wages of the clerk, the stenogra- 
pher, or the freight brakeman. Without analyzing this condition, 
the bright farm boy has recognized its existence ; hence the drift 
from the farm to town, and to new sections where cheap land can 
be had, thus duplicating for him the opportunities of his father. 

With the coming of the higher prices for agricultural products 
came, as I have said, widespread complaint against the farmer. 
From the humble toiler, thankfully receiving whatever the buyer 
saw fit to give him, and with his much-talked-of independence 
as his chief asset, he became, almost overnight, the strong mer- 
chant, asking and receiving a fair price for his products, and 

1 A paper read before the Prairie Club of Des Moines on December 17, 1910. 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



301 



finally reached the point where he was not compelled to haul 
his crops direct from the fields to the market to pay accumulated 
debts. The buyer resented this change. He had so long looked 
upon the farmer as a poorly paid laborer, thankful for the oppor- 
tunity to serve, that his changed condition seemed the basest 
ingratitude. And so from all sorts and conditions of men came 
suggestions of ways to enable the farmer to produce larger crops, 
in order that they might be sold cheaper. The need for agri- 
cultural education has become generally recognized. Every city 
consumer will agree that the farmer must be educated, not so 
much because he wants to help the farmer, but in the hope that 
educated farmers may mean cheaper farm products. Men in all 
walks of life have been active in this propaganda for agricultural 
education. Railroads have run special trains, carrying instruc- 
tion in farming, and have invited the farmers to come and hear. 
Railroad presidents have made speeches in public and have 
printed pamphlets for the farmer to read. Bankers have sub- 
scribed for cheap agricultural papers by the hundred and dis- 
tributed them free, instead of calendars and chromos. Merchants 
have offered prizes for the biggest pumpkins and the largest ears 
of corn. State fairs have offered free scholarships at the agri- 
cultural colleges. A great western university has established an 
agricultural guild and arranged with the owners of country 
estates to permit city youths to work on them, so that if worst 
comes to worst the production on the farm may continue. Mag- 
azine writers have told of the romance of farming, of the success 
of bonanza farmers ; and the magazines are full of pictures of 
the farmer in his automobile, driving from one field to another, 
inspecting his crops. The governor and industrial agent of a 
great state have started a back-to-the-farm movement, and pro- 
pose to locate city laboring men on twenty-acre plots. City school- 
teachers are taking homesteads in sections where the normal 
rainfall is less than twelve inches, and where the only way to 



302 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

get milk from a native cow is to rope and throw her and take it 
away by force. 

And the improvement of farming is a subject which may well 
challenge the attention of the American people, irrespective of 
their occupation or avocation. With the growth of our population 
there must soon come an improvement in our methods of farming. 
We have now occupied practically all of our crop-producing land. 
We have heretofore been a nation of soil robbers. As long as 
there was new land to be possessed, we worried little about wasted 
fertility. While we were harvesting the fertility of the ages, crop 
production was measured largely by the work expended. The 
most successful farmer was he who could work and work his 
dependents longest and hardest. But when successive crops have 
taken out of the soil the fertility which .is immediately available, 
the farmer who grows a crop that will bring him more than it costs 
must learn how to unlock the reserve store which nature yields 
only to him who has studied her laws. He must use brains as well 
as strength. He must learn how to restore the fertility which he 
took away. He must learn the laws of breeding and feeding live 
stock. He must learn how to grow larger crops on less land. He 
must learn how to combat the various insect pests which multiply 
under ignorant farming. He must learn how to protect his crops 
from the ravages of various low forms of parasitic plant life. These 
things are not to be learned from the so-called practical farmer. 
However skillful he may become in the art of farming, he can learn 
the science only from the scientist or from the scientific farmer. 

Hence the education of the farmer becomes a matter of the 
greatest moment to the nation at large. Our population is in- 
creasing and must be fed. Our land is practically occupied. Within 
a comparatively few years, as we measure time in a large way, 
we must increase our crop yields or go hungry. More intensive 
farming in the way of better cultural methods will temporarily 
increase the yield per acre. The labor now put upon a quarter 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 303 

section will, if intelligently expended on eighty acres, give as 
great or greater returns. But improvement in the art of " tickling 
the earth " is but a temporary expedient. The store of fertility in 
the soil is limited. If taken away year by year, and nothing 
returned, it will be exhausted as certainly as is the vein of coal. 
Improved cultivation alone acts upon the soil as a stimulant does 
upon the human organism — it exhausts its strength all the 
more rapidly. The great problem with which as a nation we are 
confronted is not alone that of growing greater crops, but of do- 
ing this and at the same time so conserving the soil that we, 
and our sons after us, may continue to grow them, and this prob- 
lem can be solved only by the educated, scientific farmer. 

It is the purpose of this paper, therefore, to consider what 
we have been and are now doing to educate the boys and young 
men who are to be the farmers of the future, and to tentatively 
suggest some things we should do hereafter, if we work out this 
problem as satisfactorily as we have heretofore worked but other, 
problems of similar importance. To this end I propose to outline 
as briefly as possible the general methods of education followed 
in some advanced foreign countries, and contrast them with our 
own ; second, to deal with secondary agricultural education in 
foreign countries ; third, to discuss the condition in this state and 
offer some suggestions as to the methods by which it might be 
improved. My information on the school systems of foreign 
countries has been gathered and appropriated from a general 
reading of everything I have been able to find bearing on the 
subject. The best single work I have found is " Making of a 
Citizen," by Robert Edward Hughes, of Oxford. 

The Gernian System 

As one writer has put it, the German school system has long 
been the admiration of the pedagogic world. It is designed not 
alone to impart knowledge, but to make citizens. It is a national 



304 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



interest. The system is bureaucratic. A minister of ecclesiastical 
education and medical affairs directs the educational work of the 
nation. The school officials are officers of the state. They appoint 
and dismiss teachers. They prescribe what is to be taught. The 
people at large have nothing to say concerning the manner in 
which the school shall be conducted. Education is compulsory, 
and it is estimated that fully 90 per cent of the total enroll- 
ment is daily in attendance at school. Going to school is a national 
habit. Parents are held strictly accountable for the attendance of 
their children, and are fined for each day the child is absent 
without good reason. If the fine is not paid, they are sent to jail. 
The schools are very largely supported by the state. City schools 
receive about one third of the amount required to conduct them, 
the amount varying in proportion as the city is able to pay. 
Country schools receive about two thirds of their total expense 
from the state. The atmosphere of the schools is distinctly re- 
ligious. In no country are the teachers so thoroughly prepared. 
Teaching in Germany is a profession, and the teacher ranks high 
in the social scale. It is said that one fifth of the teachers are the 
sons of teachers. One third of them come from the agricultural 
people. The German teacher is trained through a period of six 
years, first as a pupil in the normal preparatory school, then for 
three years a student in the normal college, and before being 
placed in full charge of classes must undergo a course of prepara- 
tory training in actual school work, as an assistant teacher and 
under the direction of a head teacher, and subject to frequent in- 
spection and examination by government inspectors. The result 
is that German instruction is thorough and consistent. Being an 
officer of the state, the German teacher is pensioned after ten 
years of service, if he retires because of disability, and is retired 
on a full-service pension at the age of sixty-five. 

The system of secondary schools is complete, and adapted to 
the needs of the various classes of German society. Three 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 305 

secondary schools have six-year courses and three others nine- 
year courses. The -work covered in the nine-year schools is equal 
to the courses of many leading universities of other lands. The 
teachers in the secondary schools of Germany are said to be 
the finest body of teachers in the world. They must first com- 
plete the nine years' course ; second, they must attend for three 
years in the university; third, they must meet special state 
examinations. After having done this, they are assigned to 
certain secondary schools under the care of the director. During 
the first year they do not teach at all, but watch the teachers 
at their work. Next they are permitted to teach two hours 
weekly in the presence of the director and regular teachers. 
Then comes the trial year, during which they teach regularly, a 
part of the time under the eye of a director. They then prepare 
a written report of progress made, and this report, together 
with that of the director upon the candidate's work, is sent to 
the provincial board, which appoints the candidate to a perma- 
nent place. The supply of teachers is plentiful, and very often 
the candidate must wait for some little time before securing his 
position. Having once got into the work, however, his tenure 
is secure. With such a system and with such teachers it is 
not surprising that the Germans are in many respects the best 
educated people in the world. 

The Fi'ench System 

Like the German, the French system of education is national 
in its character and bureaucratic in its administration. The head 
is the minister of public instruction, who has about him an 
advisory council of sixty members. Of these, three fourths are 
appointed by the professors and teachers, and one fourth by 
the president. The minister of public instruction keeps in very 
close touch with the work of the schools throughout the nation, 
through ten general inspectors and a large number of primary 



306 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

inspectors, who make their headquarters at Paris. The system 
is divided into seventeen academies, each academy being com- 
posed of the local university and all the secondary and primary 
schools within its area. These academies are presided over by 
rectors, appointed by the president. They are in turn divided 
into departments, with a civil head, the prefect, for each depart- 
ment. He appoints the teachers from a list drawn up by the 
academy inspectors, of which there is one to each department. 
Under this inspector are the primary inspectors, numbering be- 
tween four hundred fifty and five hundred, each one having 
the supervision of about one hundred fifty schools. The depart- 
mental council, made up of fourteen members, constitutes the 
departmental board of education. This council is composed of 
four counselors elected by the teachers, the directors of the nor- 
mal training college, two primary inspectors appointed by the 
minister of education, and two male and two female primary 
teachers elected by the teachers of the department. This council 
supervises the courses of study, methods of instruction, and has 
general supervision of the schools. The people have little to 
say concerning the education given their children. Compulsory 
education goes to the extent of even supervising the instruction 
given children in private schools and families — the children 
under special teachers at home being examined at the end of each 
year by a committee, of which the primary inspector is chairman ; 
and if the result of the examination is not satisfactory, parents are 
required to send the children to either public or private schools. 
This system is not followed so closely now as some years ago. 
A list of the children of school age is made up each year, and if 
the children are not in school, or if a reasonable excuse is not fur- 
nished for absence, the parents are warned, and if warned twice 
within a year, they are fined. The laws concerning the employ- 
ment of children are strict. Nothing is permitted to come be- 
tween a child and his opportunity for at least a primary education. 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 307 

The state pays the teachers of the primary and infant 
schools, of the higher primary and manual-training schools, 
and of the normal schools ; also it pays all inspectors and 
other officials, and their traveling expenses. The department 
pays a certain sum per annum to each primary inspector. The 
state contributes from 50 to 70 per cent of the cost of main- 
taining the public primary schools and in some cases even more. 
In the cities the cost is mostly borne by the municipality. Be- 
tween six and seven thousand of the primary schools are pro- 
vided with gymnasiums, and nearly one thousand have workshops 
for manual training. In the cities practically every boys' school 
is provided with a manual-training workshop, and manual train- 
ing is compulsory. In the neighborhood of sixty thousand pri- 
mary schools have school gardens. The nation controls the 
secondary schools as completely as the primary. There are 
two principal secondary schools in France — the lycee and the 
Communal College. Children enter the lycee at eight years and 
graduate at eighteen, with the degree of Bachelor of the Uni- 
versity of France. Those who wish to do so remain for two 
years longer, and thus obtain exemption from two years' mili- 
tary service. The work in the lycee is absolutely regulated by 
the state, and is uniform throughout all of the schools. The 
Communal College is a local institution, although the state con- 
tributes materially to its support. 

As in Germany, the teachers in France are employees of the 
state. The preparation of teachers is of the same general 
nature as in Germany, but not so thorough. The requirements, 
so far as mental equipment is concerned, are strict, but there 
is less attention given to the ability of the teacher to teach. The 
teacher's promotion depends, however, upon his individual abil- 
ity, and there is less difference in the wages paid teachers in 
classes. They are entitled to a pension at sixty years of age, 
and in case of death a certain portion of this pension passes on 



3o8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

to the widow. The pension fund is accumulated in large part 
by a deduction of 5 per cent per annum from the teacher's salary. 

The EnglisJi System 

The English nation was the last of the great nations to 
admit the obligation or the desirability of the state to educate 
or even partially educate its youth. Not until 1870 were there 
any state schools in England. Education was secured entirely 
at private schools, some of which, however, received financial 
aid from the government. The educational act of 1870, and 
those which followed, resulted in placing schools within reach of 
practically all the children in England and Wales, The schools 
are controlled entirely by the communities in which they are 
located, but certain conditions are imposed before they can 
secure funds from the Board of Education. The law requires 
every child between the years of five and fourteen to attend 
every session of the school unless he is receiving instruction 
elsewhere or is exempt because twelve years of age and of a 
standard proficiency; or thirteen years of age and has made, 
for five consecutive years, three hundred fifty attendances per 
annum. There are further exemptions in the case of country 
children. The percentage of attendance has been steadily in- 
creasing, the average for children over seven years of age 
running close to 90 per cent. When the educational act was 
passed, the number of children in the schools was less than 8 
per cent of the population. The number now is nearly 20 per cent. 
Between eight and ten thousand savings banks are established at 
the primary schools and about the same number of school libraries. 

The English teachers are of four different classes : certificated 
teachers, assistant teachers, additional teachers, and pupil teachers. 

The certificated teachers hold their certificates from the Board 
of Education ; these certificates are for life, and these teachers 
are entitled to a pension at sixty-five years of age. 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 



309 



Assistant teachers are those who have passed certain ex- 
aminations but have not had normal-school training. The ex- 
amination is one held by the government for the selection of 
candidates for training colleges. 

Additional teachers are those who have had no professional 
training of any sort. They are young women approved by the 
government inspector without examination. 

Pupil teachers are engaged by the school management and 
are fifteen to eighteen years of age. They teach under the 
superintendence of the head teachers and receive suitable in- 
struction while teaching. 

The pension fund is made up of contributions by the teachers, 
supplemented by the government. These contributions are used 
to purchase an annuity at retiring age, which averages some- 
thing over three hundred twenty dollars for male teachers and 
two hundred ten dollars for females. 

From the pedagogic viewpoint the educational systems of 
Germany and France are admirable. They are well administered, 
economical, and efficient. There is no lost motion. In these 
countries, and in England as well, the lines of class are firmly 
drawn, and the educational systems are devised to give the youth 
of each particular class the kind of knowledge and early training 
which will make them most useful for service in that class. The 
life work of the youth in any particular class is determined at 
an early age, and his schooling is such as to fit him, so far as 
possible, for that particular work. The opportunity for the boy 
of one class to break through the barriers into the class above 
him are limited, and hedged about in every way, and the educa- 
tional systems do little to break down these barriers. On this 
subject Dr. Andrew S. Draper, commissioner of education of 
New York, says : 

" The English purpose would have every English child read 
and write and work. England has simple but effective elemental 



3IO EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

schools for the peasant class. All peasant children go to them. 
Although they know nothing of American opportunities, the per- 
centage of illiteracy is lower than in our American states. Of 
course England has schools for the higher classes, but there is no 
educational mixing of classes and no articulation or continuity of 
work. The controlling influence in English politics is distinctly 
opposed to universalizing education through fear of unsettling 
the status and letting loose the ambition of the serving classes. 

"So it is also in France. Notwithstanding the republican 
form of government, the thought of a thousand years is con- 
trolling. The children of the masses are trained for service, and 
humble service, though possibly somewhat higher than across 
the Channel. They are trained for examinations and for routine 
rather than for power. 

" There is more to admire in the German purpose and plan, 
for ambition and determination are not lacking in the nation, 
and the kaiser knows that the material strength and the military 
power of the German Empire rest upon the intelligence of the 
German masses and the productivity of German labor." 

T]ic American System 

The American system, or lack of system, as some are dis- 
posed to regard it, could exist only in such a country as America. 
While the national government has, especially since the middle 
of the last century, taken an active part in encouraging educa- 
tional work, and has from time to time given large tracts of land 
and made large money appropriations for educational purposes, 
its part has been to encourage, not to direct or control. Through 
the Bureau of Education the nation collects a vast amount of 
helpful information, and its influence in educational matters is 
steadily growing — not through any additional powers which 
may have been given it, but through recognition, by those who 
bear the responsibility, of its ability to help them. 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 311 

In the founding of this nation there was no recognition of 
the need of general education. That came with the working 
out of democratic government, and it came slowly. Not until 
some time after the Constitution was adopted did our forbears 
begin to see that the instruction of the youth of the land was a 
matter which must engage their earnest attention. But when 
they were once squared away to the real task before them, when 
it was finally settled that this would be a government by the 
people, when it was determined that the citizen was the sov- 
ereign, they were not long in coming to the conclusion that the 
sovereign must know something if he was to rule intelligently ; 
that he must be educated. And as all citizens were equally 
sovereigns, so all must have equal opportunities so far as the 
state was concerned. And so it came about that as the people 
pushed west and new states were formed, the duty of the state 
to educate its youth was written into the constitution, and the 
subject of education became more and more important in the 
eyes of the people. With each succeeding generation the de- 
sire of the parents that their children shall have the education 
which they failed to get has grown until it has become almost 
a passion. 

Without central control or direction it was inevitable that there 
should be no general educational system. Each state evolved 
the plan which seemed best suited to its needs and conditions. 
In some states we have the school district as the unit, the dis- 
tricts varying in size according to the density of population. In 
others the township is the unit. In still others, more partic- 
ularly the Southern States, the county. 

The full time — indeed, much more than the time permitted 
for a paper of this sort — could be consumed in tracing the de- 
velopment of our public-school system. There were many efforts 
to engraft upon it the French system of centralized control in 
some of its important features. Jefferson suggested such a 



312 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

scheme for Virginia in 1817. At least one state and possibly 
others provided by law for some of the essential features of a 
thorough state system. All of these efforts failed. Our systems 
of secondary education, as we now have them in our splendid 
high schools, have been developed only in the last sixty or 
seventy years. Prior to that time secondary education had to be 
acquired in the academies which succeeded the old grammar 
schools, the latter being mostly allied to some particular college. 
These grammar schools, and academies as well, were conducted 
for the purpose of preparing students for the colleges and uni- 
versities ; they were almost entirely schools for boys, and natu- 
rally for those boys whose parents were in better than average 
circumstances. They were, to a considerable extent, therefore, 
class schools, entirely different from our democratic high schools. 
Not until very recent years has the education of the farmer 
attracted the attention even of leaders in educational thought. 
Back in the sixties Justin Morrill secured the enactment of the 
law which has always been known by his name, establishing the 
land-grant agricultural colleges. But there has been no general 
or even local plan for giving the boys of the farm a secondaiy 
education which would prepare them for these colleges. In their 
earlier years the requirements for admission to the state agricul- 
tural colleges were not so high, and the bright boy from the 
country was able to secure admission — if not to the regular 
college classes, at least to the preparatory classes, which his 
strong young body and vigorous mind enabled him to wade 
through in a short time. As time went on, however, the agricul- 
tural colleges became more ambitious, and gradually raised their 
standards, until now from Iowa east the boy who secures ad- 
mission to the freshman class must bring with him either a cer- 
tificate from an accredited four-year high school, or must be able 
to pass examinations which are practically equivalent to the work 
of a high school of that class. We have, in short, gradually 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 313 

built up the walls surrounding the agricultural colleges, and 
neglected, at the same time, to provide, within convenient reach, 
ladders by which they might be scaled by the boy from the farm. 
This compels the farm boy to spend three or four years in the 
town or city high school before he can prepare himself to enter 
the agricultural college. The training he gets at the average 
high school is not the sort of training which is likely to keep 
his thoughts directed toward the farm. He goes with the ambi- 
tion to excel in his studies. He too often discovers that excel- 
lence in studies is not the most honorable accomplishment in 
the eyes of the student body. He finds that the "shark" is- 
very often considered a freak ; that the energy and enthusiasm 
which should be conserved for those things which make for effi- 
ciency in life, for lack of better direction, find an outlet in one- 
sided athletics ; that the student body is divided up into classes 
and sets by fraternities, or, if these are forbidden, — as they are 
now in many high schools, — by clubs which form their equiva- 
lent ; and that too often foolish fathers and silly mothers encour- 
age immature society life. It requires a boy of more than ordinary 
steadfastness to pass through four years of this sort of thing 
without being weaned away from the farm. The number which 
does finally reach the college is very small, and the number that 
goes back to the farm from the college still smaller. Even if 
this condition did not exist, — if we had an easy road from the 
farm to the college, — we should not have made any material 
progress in giving a knowledge of the principles of agriculture 
to the men who are to cultivate the farms of Iowa. Not one 
fourth of one per cent of our future farmers can ever be ex- 
pected to go through the agricultural college. If we are to give 
agricultural instruction to the boys who are to do the farming, 
it must be given in local schools. And the future of Iowa agri- 
culture will be determined by the wisdom with which we work 
out this problem. 



314 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

Agricultural TcacJiing in Foreign Countries 

What follows is a very much abridged quotation from a 
monograph on agricultural education, by James Ralph Jewell, 
published by the United States Bureau of Education : 

"A thorough and comprehensive system of agricultural educa- 
tion is of more importance to France than to many other coun- 
tries, because, owing to the law of divided inheritance, most of 
the sons of French peasants will one day have strips of land of 
their own. France has an excellent agricultural system, and the 
agricultural schools which the government ranks as secondary 
are really on a par with the higher institutions of several other 
countries. Instead of maintaining a large number of small sec- 
ondary schools, France supports three large national agricul- 
tural schools in widely separated districts. The course of study 
covers two years, and is arranged to meet the needs of the va- 
rious sections of the country. One school is devoted especially 
to vine and olive culture, sheep farming, the breeding of silk- 
worms, and the making of wine and olive oil. Another pays 
especial attention to cider making, pasturing, farming on the 
share system, and the agricultural products of most importance 
in western France. Another deals especially with artificial pastur- 
age, cultivation of cereals, stock breeding, and the wine indus- 
tries of northern France. The students of all these schools 
must spend their vacations on farms and report what takes place 
there. There are, in addition, four special schools, one devoted 
to horticulture, one to agricultural industries, one to dairy farm- 
ing, and the colonial agricultural school at Tunis, 

" In Belgium there are both agricultural schools and agricultural 
sections. The schools give exclusively professional instruction, 
while in the sections a part of the time is given to the general 
education of the students. The schools have a three-year course 
with one exception, where the course is but two years. They are for 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 315 

farmers' sons who intend to continue in their fathers' vocations. 
Tuition is free, and the state gives scholarships to deserving 
students, all of whom must have been through the elementary 
schools. There are eighteen of these schools in Belgium, and a 
government official says of them :' ' The greatest service these 
schools have rendered has been to raise the agricultural profession 
to an interesting art, which fascinates the learner, and which he 
never desires to abandon.' In the agricultural sections young 
farmers may get a general as well as a professional education. 
Thirty public and .private secondary schools give short courses 
in agriculture and horticulture, one each week through the year. 
There are four agricultural sections for girls and several high 
schools of agriculture, with courses of at least two years, for girls. 
There are four dairy schools for young men in various provinces, 
with four months' courses, to provide managers for dairies. 
There are also ten traveling dairy schools for women, giving four 
months' courses of a notably high grade. Two hours a day, six 
days a week, are devoted to theoretical instruction and three 
hours daily to practical work. 

" In Holland there are six permanent winter schools of agri- 
culture and horticulture in session from October to April, and 
a two years' course of study. They are intended for the sons of 
small farmers and market gardeners. There are also four horti- 
cultural schools. 

" Finland supports secondary agricultural schools at two dif- 
ferent points, as well as at the University of Helsingfors. These 
courses are for two years. 

*' In Denmark there are numerous agricultural trade schools, 
which have grown largely during the past ten years. Since 1892 
the state has granted funds to any people's high school which 
teaches agriculture and gardening, the limit being seven hundred 
dollars annually to any one school. The agricultural schools and 
the high schools of Denmark are so closely connected that in 



3l6 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

some parts of the country it is difficult, if not impossible, to dis- 
tinguish between them. 

"In Sweden there are two agricultural high schools, each with 
a two years' course. 

" In every province in Germany there is an agricultural school. 

"In Switzerland there are four theoretical and practical schools 
of agriculture, the theoretical work being given during the winter, 
so as to leave the summer for outdoor work. In addition, winter 
courses are given for those unable to attend the full course. 

"In Portugal there are two secondary agricultural schools. 

" In Japan a secondary agricultural school may be established by 
any city, town, or village when the local finances permit, without 
detriment to the elementary schools of the place, and the govern- 
ment gives a subsidy to each such school running for five years. 
In 1904 there were fifty-seven of these schools, with 7146 pupils, 
and the number has rapidly increased since then. The course of 
study is usually one of three years. There are three higher tech- 
nical schools of agriculture, which devote their energies to special 
lines, with courses of three years in length." 

Secondary Agriciiltiiral EdiicatioJi in the United States 

In the United States we have made barely a beginning in sec- 
ondary education for farm boys. Condensing again from Jewell : 

"Agricultural high schools supported at least in part by the 
state are in successful operation in Wisconsin, Alabama, and 
California. In 1902 the first two of four county high schools 
in Wisconsin were opened at Menominee and Wausau, the state 
paying a substantial share of the first cost and afterwards a sum 
not to exceed half the amount actually expended irr such schools. 
In connection with the school at Menominee is a county train- 
ing school for rural teachers, which gives the county a body of 
teachers fairly well trained for rudimentary instruction in agri- 
culture. The annual teachers' institute is made a part of the 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 317 

agricultural summer school, and the teachers are given special 
instruction in agriculture, manual training, and domestic econ- 
omy, instead of reviewing the common branches over and over 
again. To operate one of these schools costs the farmer twenty 
cents on each one thousand dollars of his assessment. There 
are now five such schools in Wisconsin, and twenty-one county 
training schools for teachers in which agriculture is taught. 
In 1896 the legislature of Alabama established an agricultural 
school in each congressional district of the state, — nine in all, 
— in which agriculture is taught in the seventh to tenth grades 
inclusive. Over two thousand boys and girls attend these schools 
annually, and a larger proportion of them are doing definite 
work in agriculture now than ever before. 

" In 1906 a law was enacted in Georgia providing for the es- 
tablishment of a secondary school of agriculture in each of the 
eleven congressional districts, the schools to be branches of the 
State College of Agriculture. The annual income of each of these 
new schools is estimated at six thousand dollars, but the locality 
securing the school must furnish not less than two hundred acres 
of land and necessary equipment in the way of buildings, live 
stock, machinery, farm implements, and the like. Nine separate 
buildings are contemplated for each school. The course of study 
will cover four years, including one year of elementary-school 
work, and will prepare graduates for entrance to the State Col- 
lege of Agriculture. 

" Michigan, in 1903, established ten county normal training 
schools for rural teachers, in which instruction in elementary 
agriculture is given during the spring only, so that it really 
amounts to Ayork in school gardening and to making these 
teachers somewhat familiar with the better textbooks on agri- 
culture. There are now forty-five of these schools in Michigan. 
The six normal schools of Missouri give each year a good course 
in agriculture, two of them devoting to it five periods a week 



3l8 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

through the entire year. The California Polytechnic School, at 
San Luis Obispo, a state institution established in January, 1902, 
offers secondary courses in agriculture, domestic science, and 
mechanics, covering a period of three years. 

" There are here and there through the country three or four 
private secondary schools in agriculture maintained without 
state aid. One of these is a Catholic school at San Francisco. 
Another is the Mount Hermon School, founded by D. L. Moody, 
near Northfield, Massachusetts. The third is the National Farm 
School, at Doylestovvn, Pennsylvania, a school for Jews ; and 
here and there through the country city high schools have 
developed quite strong agricultural courses. 

" Minnesota has an excellent secondary school in agriculture 
in connection with her State Agricultural College, and has es- 
tablished another at Crookston, in the northwest part of the 
state, which offers a three years' course of six months each, to 
which students from the country are admitted without examina- 
tion. Popular short courses of one week each are also held at 
this school. Ten high schools give instruction in agriculture. 

" Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and many other states are rapidly 
consolidating the rural schools, grading them, and introducing 
agricultural instruction in the higher grades. In Indiana eighty- 
two of the ninety-two counties have consolidated schools. 

" Nebraska has 5 normal schools which give instruction in agri- 
culture, and 103 high schools in which some phases of the sub- 
ject are taught. In Ohio there are now 47 township and 39 city 
high schools which teach agriculture; in Missouri, 61 ; in Illi- 
nois, II ; in Indiana, ii." 

TJic CoJidition in Iowa 

Iowa is the greatest all-round agricultural state in the 
Union, In intelligence, thrift, and the qualities which go to 
make good citizenship, her people are believed to be the ecjual 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 319 

of the people of any other state and the superior of most. But 
in the systematic education of her youth she is far behind most 
other states north of Mason and Dixon's hne. Only the length of 
this paper enables me to resist the temptation to discuss the 
chaotic condition of our educational system in general. We 
have about 12,000 rural schools in Iowa, and Superintendent 
Riggs is authority for the statement that more than 2000 of 
them never enroll more than ten pupils each in a given term, 
while many of them enroll less than five. Less than 3000, or 
about 25 per cent, enroll more than twenty pupils in any given 
term. And enrollment is not synonymous with attendance. Our 
efforts as a state to give our youth the knowledge of the prin- 
ciples of agriculture are confined to the work done through the 
State College of Agriculture, In a few counties progressive 
county superintendents have voluntarily introduced the study 
of corn and other grains, and some of the simple nature studies, 
in the rural schools. The pioneer in this line was Cap. Miller, 
of Keokuk County. In Page County, Miss Jessie Field caught 
the spirit and has carried this work still further, until practi- 
cally every rural school in the county is devoting considerable 
time each week to studying the simpler things of agriculture. 
O. H. Benson is doing work of the same sort in Wright County. 
In other counties here and there, scattered over the state; an 
occasional real teacher, encouraged by some progressive farmer 
in the neighborhood, has taken up the work. Some seven or 
eight high schools and two or three of the smaller colleges of 
the state have inaugurated some agricultural work. 

Nor have we as yet taken even the first step toward remedy- 
ing this unfortunate condition. While many of our people and 
many of our teachers understand our shortcomings, no system- 
atic effort has been made toward improvement. While other 
states are redirecting their rural schools and educating teachers 
to take charge of them, we are doing nothing at all in this 



320 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

direction, except that the Extension Department of the college 
has held one summer institute for country-school teachers in a 
northwestern county. 

The work of the Iowa Agricultural College consists of : 

First, providing various four-year courses in agriculture, civil 
and mechanical engineering, veterinary science, and general and 
domestic science. These are open to students from accredited 
high schools, or to those who can pass an examination of the 
same grade. 

Second, a special two years' course in agriculture, to which 
are admitted students who cannot meet the entrance requirements 
to the regular course. 

Third, experimental work in agriculture, carried on by the 
Experiment Station, which is supported in part by the 
national government. The results of this work are disseminated 
in the form of bulletins, which are sent free to residents of the 
state who apply for them. 

Fourth, a two weeks' course in agriculture, open to boys and 
men of any age, at which are taught corn and live-stock judg- 
ing, dairying, etc. 

Fifth, extension work which is carried on by a special corps 
of instructors, who conduct short courses of one week each in 
various counties of the state, twenty-one being planned for this 
winter. The Extension Department also publishes bulletins 
written in popular form and mans the special trains run by 
the railroads. 

The Agricultural College graduated its first class in 1872. 
From a list of the alumni published by the college in January, 
19 10, and which therefore does not include the class of 19 10, 
I find that a total of 362 have been graduated with degrees of 
Bachelor of Agriculture and Bachelor of Scientific Agriculture. 
Of these there are 9 whose addresses are not known, 5 are 
dead, 212 reside outside of Iowa, and 136 reside in Iowa. How 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 32 1 

many of those remaining in the state are on farms or engaged 
in agricultural pursuits I have not been able to ascertain. It is 
of course true that many times this number of students have 
studied agriculture at this institution one or more terms. The 
number this year, reported in the four-year courses in the agri- 
cultural department, is 703, while there are 134 in the special 
two-year course. Better work is now being done at the college 
than at any previous time, but the figures quoted show how far 
short it falls of meeting our real needs. We have more than 
two hundred thousand farms in the state of Iowa, and it is per- 
fectly evident that if any considerable percentage of the boys 
who will till these farms in the future are to have even a partial 
knowledge of the principles of agriculture, they must get it else- 
where than at the State Agricultural College. It is worthy of 
note that the total enrollment in all the state agricultural colleges 
of the Union, not including the schools for colored people and 
not including the short and special courses, was 61,662 for the 
year 1909, and of this number but 5873 were enrolled in the 
agricultural courses ; or about 9^ per cent of the students of 
the agricultural colleges studied agriculture. 

For the year ending June 30, 19 10, our State Agricultural 
College received for educational support $276,935 ; for fees 
and tuition, $58,244; for scholarship fund, $1350; for agri- 
cultural extension work, $32,000 ; for experiment work, $78,000 ; 
and for building and equipment fund, $163,815 ; or a total of 
over $610,000 during one year. During the last five years 
$718,526 was expended for building purposes, included in this 
being $329,934 for a hall of agriculture. 

The work of the short course which is held at the college 
for two weeks during the winter vacation, and the work of the 
Extension Department, is designed not to furnish an agricultural 
education, but to give to the practical farmer information of a 
quasi-scientific character, and to stimulate interest in better 



32 2 EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

farming. The Extension Department is doing by word of mouth 
what the better agricultural papers have been doing for years in 
a very much larger way by the printed page. The state is get- 
ting very much greater direct material benefit for the money it 
spends in this extension work than for any other money spent 
through the Agricultural College. This benefit comes not alone 
from the knowledge imparted. The best teaching is not the im- 
parting of knowledge, but the creating of an appetite for it, 
inspiring the desire to learn and know. We can establish better 
schools only where the people want them and are willing to take 
the initiative. The extension work prepares the way. The ex- 
tension worker must be an inspirational teacher. His pupils come 
to hear him not because they want the credits necessary to secure 
a diploma, but because they want to learn what he can teach. If 
he does not interest them, they do not come back. The best 
teachers in the state are those of the Extension Department — 
the most unselfish, the most enthusiastic, the most devoted. 

But the work being done by the Agricultural College in its 
various activities — important as this work is — is not the work 
most necessary for the betterment of Iowa agriculture and for 
the betterment of the farm boy. We must place the opportunity 
to secure a knowledge of scientific agriculture within reach of 
the average boy on the farm. It seems foolish to permit the 
boy to grow up in ignorance of the things he most needs to 
know in his business, and then try to teach the man in short 
courses of a week each year. We should in some way build a 
system of secondary education designed to meet the needs of 
the boy who will be a farmer. Ignorant men cannot long cul- 
tivate lands worth two hundred dollars an acre. The prosperity 
of Iowa depends upon the intelligence of the men who till her 
farms. The resident of the town and city must, for his own 
preservation, aid in placing the right sort of education within 
reach of the farm boy. 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 323 

In conclusion, I have not an elaborately vvorked-out system 
to propose, but I suggest certain lines along which we should 
move : 

First, we cannot supply agricultural education by legislative 
dictum. Efforts to enact laws which will require forthwith the 
teaching of agriculture in all schools or in all rural schools are 
not well directed. 

Second, the state cannot, as in other countries, control en- 
tirely the education of its youth, but without more direct aid of 
the state than has been given in the past we shall make no 
general progress. This aid can be most effectively given in two 
ways. (1:7) By training teachers competent to give instruction in 
agricultural subjects. This should be begun in a wholesale way 
by a course in agriculture at the State Normal School, by estab- 
lishing a special summer school for rural teachers at the State 
Agricultural College, and by holding special short courses for 
teachers under the direction of the Extension Department 
in various parts of the state. In these ways we can make a be- 
ginning, but at the earliest possible moment we must provide 
training schools for rural teachers which will really fit them 
for rural teaching. (/?) By giving financial aid to rural schools 
which provide secondary courses. Our people can most easily 
be induced to spend their own money when by so doing they 
can get some of the state's money. Only in this way can the 
state exercise a strong influence upon the character of the rural 
schools. 

Third, the foundation of any real system of agricultural ed- 
ucation is the rural school. As a state we have spent so much 
time and money in fashioning the lily work on the pillars and 
constructing a band stand on the roof, that we have given almost 
no attention to the foundation. The first step toward the im- 
provement of the rural school will be in the direction of consoli- 
dation. Efforts to introduce agricultural instruction in primary 



324 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



schools have not been successful. The most that can be done in 
this direction is to give primary studies an agricultural flavor and 
interest the children in certain forms of nature work. With the 
consolidated school, however, grades can be established, and in 
the higher grades excellent work in agriculture and domestic 
science can be carried on by competent teachers. 

Fourth, we must have a system of secondary agricultural 
schools open to boys and girls from all the rural schools and 
planned with especial reference to their needs. The school year 
should not exceed six months. Our ultimate aim should be to 
place a first-class secondary school within driving distance of 
every farm, and these schools should, so far as possible, be in 
the country and not in the small town, to the end that around 
them may be built up a rural social life. For lack of teachers 
it may be necessary first to establish a secondary school in each 
congressional district, which can later be developed into training 
schools for teachers ; but township high schools should be the 
goal, and they should be made available at once to every com- 
munity that is now ready for them. The courses of study at 
these schools should be planned solely with the purpose of giving 
the farm boy and girl the education they most need for farm- 
ing, and not with a view of preparing them to enter the agri- 
cultural or any other college. Ninety-five per cent of the pupils 
who attend them will attend no other school. 

Fifth, the Extension Department should be provided with 
greatly increased funds, that it may be enabled to extend its short- 
course work and inaugurate a series of institutes at which rural 
teachers may be given the inspiration which they so much need 
and the instruction which will enable them to introduce nature 
work. The state now gives this department ^32,000 annually. 
Last year the communities in which it worked contributed over 
$31,000. Not less than $100,000 per year should be made 
available for the sole use of the Extension Department. 



CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 325 

Finally, if we wish to improve our schools, we must be willing 
to spend our money. We have spent freely in the past for our 
higher educational institutions, which educate the few. We must 
spend freely in the future for grade and secondary schools to ed- 
ucate the many. This state can well afford to support both. But 
if to redirect our schools we must redirect our appropriations 
for education, then let it be done. 



INDEX 



Advisory committees, 58, 153, 156 
Agassiz School experiment, 95 
Agricultural College, Iowa, 320 
Agricultural colleges, the entrance 
requirements and the farm boy, 312 
Agricultural education, classified, i, 

299 ; address on, by H. C. Wallace, 

300 ; need for, 301 ; tardy recogni- 
tion of farmers' need for, 312; 
in foreign countries, 314; in the 
United States, 316; in secondary 
schools, 316; state aid for, 323 

Albany Vocational Schools, 153 
American Association for Labor 

Legislation, 267 
American Federation of Labor, 26, 

32, 221 
Apprenticeship, 20, 224, 284 
Ayres, Leonard P., 8, 77, 143 

Banking school, 234 

Bauersfeld, Albert G., 171 

Berkeley, reorganization of school 
system, 84 

Beverly Industrial School, part-time 
cooperative work, 209 

Bloomfield, Meyer, 235 

Bogan, William J., 174 

Boston, Agassiz School experiment, 
95; Boys' Trade School, 153; day 
continuation schools, 230 ; high 
schools, 10, 154; High School of 
Commerce, 242 ; prevocational 
work, 95 ; Trade School for Girls, 
153, 242 

Bridgeport, State Trade School, 176 

Brooks, Stratton D., 236 

Buffalo vocational schools, 1 53 

Bunker, Frank F., 84 

Cabinetmaking, course in, 133 
Cambridge, plan of promotion, 76 
Carpentry, course in, 140, 183 
Chart of vocational schools, 65 



Chicago, Albert G. Lane Technical 
High School, 155 ; course of study, 
grades six to eight, 120; Manual 
Training School, 1 1 ; review 
schools, 83 

Child labor, 267, 284 

Cincinnati, part-time cooperative 
work, 201 ; continuation schools, 
224 ; vocational guidance, 266 

Cleveland, 1 1 ; continuation schools, 
229 ; Elementary Industrial School, 
102 ; quarterly plan, 82 ; Techni- 
cal High School, 102, 154, 155 

Columbus, Georgia, Secondary Indus- 
trial School, 151 

Commercial education classified, i 

Concord, the three-group system, 86 

Connecticut, legislation, 268 

Continuation schools, 69, 223 ; Bos- 
ton, 230; Cincinnati, 224; Cleve- 
land, 229 

Courses of study, 106, 116, 117, 120, 
122, 131, 144, 162, 164, 180, 183, 
186, 199, 205, 217, 225, 285 

David Ranken, Jr., School of Mechan- 
ical Trades, 182 

Davis, Jesse B., 246 

Delinquency, juvenile, 46 

Democracy in education, 40 

Department stores, education prepar- 
ing for salesmanship in, 231 

Differentiation, needed earlier in 
school system, 56, 60 ; plan of, 
64, 65 

Division of labor, 7 

Dressmaking, course in, 180 ; 

Dry-goods school, 233 

Dyer, Frank B., 224 

Early choice of vocational courses, 

70, 236, 239 
Economic conditions, 7, 20 
Economy in school organization, 92 



327 



6-' 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



Education, in early adolescence, 85 ; 
elementary, 5, 55, 67,85; ideal of, 
4; industrial, definition of, i, 9; 
renewed demand for industrial, 17; 
subdivisions of industrial, 68 ; sub- 
divisions of liberal, 68 ; revision of 
ideals of, 52 ; secondary, 5, 86, 89, 
129, 151 ; supplementary, 238 

Educators, their demand for indus- 
trial education, 37 ; influence of, 
43 ; industrial education opposed 
by conservative, 42 

Efficiency as a measurement of school 
work, 171 

Electricity, course in, 135, 164 

Elementary grades, 5, 55, 67, 85, 87 ; 
■six-year courses in, 60, 85, 90 

Elimination of pupils from school, 54 

Elliott, Edward C, 17, 267 

Evanston, Elementary Technical 
School, 1 1 5 

Farm boy and agricultural education, 

312 
Farmer, the compensation of, 300 ; 

need of education of, recognized, 

301 ; the scientific, 302 
Fitchburg, part-time cooperative 

work, 202 ; prevocational work 

in Practical Arts School, 116 
Flexibility of school organization 

needed, 56 

Gary school system, 91 
Geography-history, course in, 108 
Girls' Trade Education League, 

Boston, 240 
Grand Rapids, vocational guidance 

in Central High School, 246 ; 

Public Library Bulletin, 253 
Gustafson, Lewis, 182 

Hunter, W. B., 202 

Ideals, revision of educational, 52 

Immigration, 20 

Independent industrial school, 129, 

142 
Indiana, legislation, 269 
Indianapolis, semi-industrial school, 

113 
Industrial conditions, changed, 20 
Industrial development, mainspring 

of, 3 



Industrial education, definition of, i ; 
demands for, by the manufacturers, 
20 ; by organized labor, 26 ; by 
educators, 27 ! ^J social workers, 
44 ; in reform schools, 46 ; in rela- 
tion to the labor question, 28 ; and 
the labor market, 28, 36 
Industrial history, courses required 

in, 141 
Intermediate grades, 60, 85 
Intermediate industrial school, 129 
International Association of Machin- 
ists, 2,2, 
International Typographical Union, 34 
Iowa Agricultural College, 320 

Kansas, legislation, 269 

Langley, Elizabeth E., 18 

Legislation, on industrial education, 
130, 177, igo, 212, 228, 229; sum- 
mary of state, Connecticut, 26S ; 
Indiana, 269 ; Kansas, 269 ; Maine, 
270; Massachusetts, 271; Michi- 
gan, 275; New Jersey, 276; New 
York, 277 ; Ohio, 279 ; Oklahoma, 
280; Oregon, 281; Pennsylvania, 
281 ; Wisconsin, 282 

Legislation relating to combined agri- 
cultural education, manual training, 
and household science and art, 
Minnesota, 294; North Dakota, 296; 
Vermont, 298 

Los Angeles, Macy Trade School, 
121 ; vocational guidance, 123 

Lynch, James M., 34 

McElroy, James F., 17 

Machine-shop work, course in, 199; 
part-time course in, 205, 217; for 
apprentices, 225 

Maine, legislation, 270 

Manual training, early history, 10; 
purpose and value of, 14; relation 
to educational psychology, 13; and 
industrial education, 9, 267, 278, 
294 

Manufacturers, attitude of, toward 
labor unions and their relation to 
industrial education, 24 ; demand of, 
for industrial education, 20 

Massachusetts, Commission on Indus- 
trial Education, 17, 271 ; legislation, 
271 



INDEX 



329 



Massachusetts Institute of Technol- 
ogy, II 
Menomonie, plan of promotions, 82 
Michigan, legislation, 275 
Millinery, course in, 180 
Milwaukee, trade schools, 176 
Minnesota, legislation, 294 

National Association of Manufac- 
turers, 28 

National Child Labor Committee, 267 

National Education Association, 17, 
102 

National Society for the Promotion of 
Industrial Education, 7, 201, 267 

New Jersey, legislation, 276 

New York, legislation, 277 

New York City, Manhattan Trade 
School, 149; vocational guidance, 
264 ; Vocational School for Boys, 

153 

New York State Education Depart- 
ment, 60 

Newark, 113 

Newton Independent Industrial 
School, 142 

North Bennet Street Industrial 
School, 48 

North Dakota, legislation, 296 

Ohio, legislation, 279 

Oklahoma, legislation, 280 

Oregon, legislation, 281 

Organized labor, its demand for in- 
dustrial education, 26 ; and general 
education, 36 

Parsons, Frank, 235 

Part-time cooperative schools or 

courses, 69, 201 ; Beverly, 209 ; 

Fitchburg, 202 
Pennsylvania, legislation, 281 
Perry, Charles F., 176 
Petit, Walter W., 115 
Philadelphia Trades School, 176 
Plumbing, course in, 137 
Portland, plan of promotion, 78 
Portland School of Trades, 176 
Practice exercises, the place of, 195 
Preparatory-salesmanship school, 233 
Prevocational work, 95; Boston, 95; 

Cleveland, 102 ; Evanston, 115; 

Fitchburg, 116; Indianapolis, 113; 

Los Angeles, 121; Newark, 113; 



Seattle, 124; Springfield, 114; St. 

Paul, 114; prolongs school life, loi, 

103, 109; brief summary of chief 

characteristics of, 127 
Product system, the, 33, 36, 130, 135, 

142, 145, 150, 153, 170, 173, 190, 215 
Promotions, plans of making, 76, 77, 

78, 82 
Prosser, Charles A., 268 

Reorganization of school systems, 75, 

84, 86, 91 
Retardation, prevention of, 63 
Roberts, William E., iii 
Rochester Shop School, 130 
Rundlett, L. J., 87 
Russell, James E., 17, 40 

Safford, Adelbert L., 209 

St. Louis, plan of promotion, 77 ; 
David Ranken, Jr., School of Me- 
chanical Trades (private), 182 

St. Paul, special industrial schools, 1 14 

Schneider, Herman, 201 

School attendance, compulsory, of 
working minors, 39, 229, 280, 293 

Seattle, Elementary Industrial School, 
125 

Shaw, Mrs. Quincy A., 12, 235 

Shoe-and-leather school, 233 

Shop mathematics, 141 

Springfield Vocational School, 114 

State aid for industrial education, 268, 
269, 270, 271, 275, 276, 278, 288, 
290, 294, 296, 298 

Teachers, qualifications of, in early 
manual-training work, 58 ; in the 
industrial schools, 58, 105, 132, 181, 
220, 226 
Trade order work in schools, 1 50 
Trade schools, 69, 175; David Ranken, 
Jr., School of Mechanical Trades, 
182 ; Milwaukee Schools of Trades, 
176; Worcester Trade School, 190 

United Shoe Machinery Company, 
part-time agreement, 214 

Vanderlip, Frank A., 34 
Vermont, legislation, 298 
Vocational assistants, 242 
Vocational Bureau, Boston, 235, 239 
Vocational counselors, 240, 252 



530 



EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



Vocational education, i 
Vocational guidance, 69, 123, 235; 
high schools, 248 

Wage system, 6 

Wallace, H. C, 300 

Washington University, St. Louis, 

Wasted years, the, 76 

Wealth, unequal distribution of, 6 



Wilson, Lewis A., 130 
Winslow, Charles H., 26 
Wisconsin, legislation, 283 
Women's Municipal League, Boston, 

240 
Woods, Robert A., 50 
Woolman, Mary Schenck, 149 
Worcester Trade School, 176, 190 
Work and education, 57, 62 



JUL 6 



1912 



